freedmen and slaves
literary sources on slaves
Alfody’s 1972 study of 1201 grave inscriptions from the Western provinces of the Empire, reveals that c. 60% of the freed were women
big points
acknowledge that all slaves and freedmen had different experiences
urban slaves or slaves in the imperial household had much better prospects of betterment than their agricultural or mining counterparts
men and women slaves also had diff experiences
As such, it is impossible to analyse a singular experience of slavery during this period: location, profession, and the family to which one belonged could all alter a slave’s livelihood
Almost all literature regarding slaves in the Roman Empire is composed by the elite.
Seneca condemns the Romans for being ‘excessively haughty, cruel and insulting’ towards their slaves
one text from a non-elite perspective is the Discourses of ex-slave Epictetus
he was born into servitude c. 50 AD in Phrygia, but later moved to Rome before being manumitted
the text itself was composed by Arrian, but he says he recorded the exact words of Epictetus
Epictetus reports that the indignity of slavery and the cruelty of their masters ensured the prolonged subjugation of the enslaved
Cicero’s slave Tiro, who maintained a plethora of positions: he was a literary collaborator, debt collector, secretary, and political strategist, and was eventually manumitted
archaeology on slaves
In London, two burials of likely slaves were discovered with iron rings around their ankles . This signifies how slavery could not be escaped, even in death or manumission
One could cite the Statilii Columbarium as evidence for a more favourable treatment of slaves
it is a tomb in which the enslaved were buried next to their masters or patrons, suggesting an equality?
but even dogs may have been buried together with their masters sometimes
indeed, a social hierarchy still prevails in the tomb, as some individuals in this tomb had memorials with elaborate sculptural images, whilst others had only their names inscribed
Further, it was not in fact the elite members of the family who commissioned the inscriptions for slaves, usually it was their co-workers who organised such commemoration
That Cicero chose to free Tiro showcases how he recognised that servitude was not a preferable existence
moreover, manumission did not guarantee symmetry of opportunities because you could inherit your master's fortune, or could still be tied to slavery through familial relations, as a mother might be manumitted whilst her children remained in servitude.
literary sources on freedmen
archaeology on freedmen
Augustus wanted the people to be kept ‘pure and unsullied by any taint of foreign or servile blood’ (Suetonius, Augustus, 40)
he implemented the Lex Fufia Caninia and the Lex Aelia Sentia in 2BC and 4AD respectively, which regulated manumission
freedmen were banned from serving in the army or in public office
funeral monuments of freedmen broadly emphasise a few primary subject matters, namely family and profession, because they could not emphasise military triumphs or time in office
Gavii relief
the Gavii relief displays a family: a libertus named Dardanus, his brother Salvius, the former’s son Rufus and mother Asia
It is known that the two brothers were carpenters, but it is evident that this tomb highlights familial ties above all else
Therefore, it is logical that they might choose to emphasise their family, by presenting themselves as the founding members of a new, free lineage, looking towards the future.
Eurysaces' tomb
This tomb, for Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces, rises 33 feet above the ancient Via Labicana, and so occupies a visible and valuable parcel of land at one of the entrances to the city
Eurysaces has three names, and one is Greek, indicative of a freedman
but it is impossible to conclude that Eurysaces was a freedman, as it may well be that Greek names were simply in vogue in Rome at this time, but the tomb is ostentatious, and there are servile connotations of baking as a profession
cylindrical holes adorning each side that formed part of dough-kneading machines, because there are square depressions at the back of each basin, in which reddish rust stains can be found, elucidating the former presence of metal mounts
trimalchio
ostentatious and tasteless according to petronius
At the entrance to Trimalchio’s home, there is a large mural that shows ‘a picture of how he learned accounting and, finally how he became a steward'
freedmen seemingly wished to emphasise their own personal mettle that allowed them to succeed and accumulate wealth, whether it be through learning a skill such as accounting or baking.
built around the end of the republic, between 50-20BC
Varro speaks of slaves as 'the class of instruments endowed with speech' akin to machinery
compare freedmen tombs to other tombs
The Tomb of Cartilius Poplicola
elected as duumvir 8 times and censor 3 times
an important citizen of Ostia in the first century BC, was built in the years 25-20 BC.
'By decree of the city council and with the agreement of the colonists,to the leading citizen, for his merits,this monument has been dedicated'
this is also quite ostentatious, but was dedicated by others, shows that freedmen had more to prove
pyramid tomb of Caius Cestius
Caius Cestius, a praetor, a tribune of the plebs
The tomb was built along Via Ostiense, between 18 and 12 BC
The structure is 36.40 meters high and has a square base of about 30 meters per side
while it is ostentatious in its shape and scale, the only decoration is the inscription - eurysaces had to create a narrative to explain how he acquired his wealth, whereas Caius is content with just displaying it
shows we can often learn more from freedmen's tombs
Scholars estimate about 10% (but possibly up to 20%) of the Roman empire's population were enslaved
'dying in large numbers because of the exceptional hardships they endure' Diodorus siculus
Senece Epistle 47 alludes to sexual abuse of slaves
freedmen were still stained with their past in slavery, this is known as macula servitutis
Zoilos' Tomb, Aphrodisias
some panels of the frieze on Zoilos' tomb survive, we should imagine them around a square columnar mausoleum
one complete side and parts of all others survive
they present an elevated narrative of Zoilos' career: think Trimalchio mural!
includes figures like Andreia (bravery) and Time (honour), representing Zoilos' military victories. Also Demos and Polis, representing his civic contributions
Zoilos is depicted in a Roman toga - he is proud of his acquisition of citizenship upon being manumitted
also depicted is the figure of Roma
the tomb was commissioned posthumously and granted by the city as a reward for his benefactions
Vesonius' Tomb, Pompeii
this tomb was built by freedman Vesonius whilst he was still alive
On this inscription, the word 'Augustalis' has been added after the text was first inscribed
Appointment as an Augustalis, or priest of the emperor, was the highest civic honour awarded to a freedman, and he must have been elected after the tomb was commissioned, but still wanted it added
representative of an preoccupation about remembrance, and career progression for a freedman
Mygdonius' tomb, Ravenna
from the tomb of Mydonius, found in Ravenna, now lost
the inscription says:
'I was made a Roman citizen with the help of fate'
the goddess fortuna is depicted to the right, and the presence of deities in the transition into freedom links this with Trimalchio's mural
'My ambition since a young man was to reach my old age'
suggests that what he cared about was simply living
there are many mistakes in the grammar and spelling of the Latin, which may suggest that Mygdonius wrote this himself, it is thus a true account of his feelings
Limestone Tablet from Tarraco
on behalf of his wife Antonia Clementina, the husband gives her gardens to the freedmen and freedwomen of her household
the gardens were not to be sold, but to descend through the freedpeople's offspring
shows there was not symmetry of freedom, even after manumission
Calvisius Sabinus
Seneca the Younger, writing under Nero, wrote about this freedman, in Epistle 27
he claims that Calvisius Sabinus was wealthy, but lacked the education to remember the diff between Achilles, Priam, Odysseus
so he bought slaves that would recall quotes from the nine lyric poets to him, such that he seemed educated at dinner parties
like Trimalchio, he is presented as having more money than sense, and his poor education shows
Tiberius Claudius Secundus, Rome
an inscription honouring the deceased freedman, who used to be a slave of the imperial household, and took the first two names of his master (the emperor) upon manumission
the inscription has a tone of hedonism
'Baths, wine, and sex wreck our bodies, but baths, wine, and sex make life worth living'
encapsulates a 'seize the day' attitude reflected in Trimalchio
also suggests enough wealth had been accumulated when freed, to afford this monument, and baths, wine and sex