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Science - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Dissolve in water to form H+ ions
  - - - Aqueous ammonia
      - All metal oxides and metal hydroxides from group 1
        
        Soluble
    - - All metal oxides and hydroxides
        
        Insoluble
  - - - Salt & hydrogen gas
    - - Salt, water & carbon dioxide
    - - Salt & water
  - - - When 2 or more non-metal chemicals combine
    - - When a substance breaks down into 2 or more chemicals
    - - When metallic elements reacts w oxygen
    - - When something reacts w oxygen and produces heat
- - - - Materials
        
        Metals
        
        When metal particles are heated, they become metal ions and have free moving delocalised electrons
        
        Free moving delocalised electrons are v fast & collide w e +ve.ly charged metal ions, transferring heat quickly
      - State of matter
        
        Particles are packed closer in solids,hence the frequency of collisions is higher, enabling easier and faster transfer of kinetic energy through solids
  - - - The movement of fluid caused by a difference in the densities of various parts of the fluid.
      - ___ gains heat, expands, decreases in density and rises, forming a convection current.
  - - - Can occur through vacuum
    - - Colour of surface
        
        Darker, duller surfaces absorb & emit thermal radiation at a higher rate, and are poor reflectors of thermal radiation
        
        Brighter, shinier surfaces absorb and emit thermal radiation at a lower rate, and are better reflectors of thermal radiation
      - Temperature difference between the surface and the surroundings
        
        The higher the temperature difference, the higher the rate of emission of thermal radiation
      - Surface area
        
        The higher the surface area, the greater the rate of absorption and emission of thermal radiation
- - - - Work done = force x distance travelled
  - - - P = V squared / R
      - P = R(I) squared
- - - - Double sugars
        
        Maltose(Glucose + Glucose - water)
        
        Sucrose(Glucose + Sucrose - water)
        
        Lactose(Glucose + Galactose - water)
        
        Chemical formula:C(12)H(22)O(11)
      - Complex sugars
        
        Starch
        
        Storage form of carbohydrates in plants
        
        Can be identified by iodine test
        
        Add 2-3 drops of iodine solution of object
        
        Colour after test:
        
        2 more items...
        
        Glycogen
        
        Storage form of carbohydrates in animals
        
        Stored in muscles & liver
        
        Cellulose
        
        Structural form of cell walls to strengthen them
      - Single sugars
        
        Glucose
        
        Reducing sugars
        
        Can be identified by Benedict’s test
        
        Put 2cm of Bendict’s solution, shake, heat in boiling water bath for 2 mins
        
        Colour after test:
        
        4 more items...
        
        Fructose
        
        Galactose
        
        Chemical formula: C(6)H(12)O(6)
      - Purpose:
        
        Provide energy
        
        Form supporting structes(cell wall)
        
        Form DNA
    - - Chemical formula:C(x)H(y)O(z),where y>>z
      - Formation: 3 fatty acids, 1 glycerol molecule
        
        Can be identified by ethanol emulsion test
        
        Add 2 cm of ethanol, shake, add 2 cm of distilled water and shake(for liquids)(for solids, pour the top layer of ethanol into another test tube b4 adding water)
        
        Colour after test:
        
        Clear
        
        No fats
        
        Cloudy, white emulsion
        
        Fats present
      - Purpose:
        
        1.Store of energy
        
        2.Insulates the body
        
        Protects the organs from damage
    - - Chemical formula:C(a)H(b)O(c)N(d)[sometimes S(e)]
      - Formation: amino acids, where there’s NH(2)[amino group],COOH[acid group],R[side chain],H,C
        
        Can be identified by Biuret test
        
        Add 2 cm of NaOH, shake, add CuSO(4) drop by drop
        
        Colour after test:
        
        Blue
        
        No proteins
        
        Violet
        
        Proteins present
      - Amino acids:
        
        Their bonds
        
        Peptide bonds
        
        2
        
        Dipeptide
        
        Many
        
        Polypeptide
        
        Many polypeptides
        
        Protein
        
        Primary
        
        1 sequence of amino acids
        
        Cannot be used by the body
        
        Secondary
        
        Folded sequence of amino acids into a helix formation
        
        Tertiary
        
        Folded pattern of secondary
        
        Quaternary
        
        Multiple tertiary level structures folded together
        
        Can be used by the body
      - Function:
        
        Growth and repair of cells(muscle building, creation of antibodies etc.)
    - - Anabolic
        
        Building of complex substances using smaller molecules and energy(eg. excess glucose —> fats)
      - Catabolic
        
        Breaking down of complex substances to form smaller substances and energy(starch --> glucose)
    - - Enzymes
        
        Proteins
        
        Have active sites where the chemical reactions take place, which are substrate-specific(lock & key hypothesis)
        
        Enzyme -> enzyme-substrate complex ->enzyme
        
        Can be denatured(damaged) by:
        
        Unsuitable temperature
        
        Suitable temperature leads to high amounts of kinetic energy-> high rate of reaction
        
        Unsuitable pH levels
      - To speed up chemical reactions(like digestion), remains the same at the end of the reaction by providing a path of lower activation energy
  - - - Ingestion
        
        Via the mouth
      - Digestion
        
        Catabolic reactions, including both physical and chemical break down of molecules
      - Absorption
        
        Digested food molecules pass through the plasma membrane of epithelial cells lining the small intestine via diffusion and active transport
      - Assimilation
        
        Absorbed food substances are transported via the bloodstream to be utilised by cells to make new protoplasm or release energy
      - Egestion
        
        Undigested food is passed out of the body via the anus
    - - Ailmentary canal
        
        Mouth
        
        Oesophagus
        
        Longitudinal muscles
        
        Outer layer
        
        Relaxes when bolus is behind, contracts when bolus is in front
        
        Circular muscles
        
        Inner layer
        
        Contracts when bolus is behind, relaxes when bolus is in front
        
        Stomach
        
        Muscle walls churn the food(peristalsis)(physical digestion)
        
        Secrets gastric juice
        
        Hydrochloride acid
        
        Kills bacteria & provides optimum pH for protease
        
        Gastric protease(pepsin)
        
        Breaks down proteins into polypeptides
        
        Result is call chyme
        
        Small intestine
        
        Secretes intestinal juice
        
        pH 8
        
        Intestinal maltase
        
        Maltose —> Glucose + Glucose
        
        Intestinal lactase
        
        Lactose —> Glucose + Galactose
        
        Intestinal sucrase
        
        Sucrose —> Glucose + Fructose
        
        Intestinal protease(peptidase)
        
        Polypeptides —> amino acids
        
        Intestinal lipase
        
        Fats —> Glycerol + 3 fatty acid chains
        
        Absorbs glucose and amino acids through the epithelial cells lining the small intestine, which is then carried away by blood capillaries
        
        Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the epithelial cells, where they are converted to fats, before being carried away by the lacteal
        
        The small intestine is 7 meters long, has many folds in its inner wall, has many finger-like projections on said folds(villi), increasing the surface area to volume ratio which increases the rate of absorption of digested food into the epithelial cells, which are then rapidly carried away in the bloodstream to maintain concentration gradient for diffusion
        
        Large intestine
        
        Made up of the colon and the rectum
        
        Undigested food slowly solidifies into faeces
        
        Faeces is stored in the rectum until egressed through the anus
        
        Anus
      - Associated organs
        
        Teeth
        
        Physical digestion by chewing
        
        Pancreas
        
        Secretes pancreatic juice into small intestine
        
        Provides optimum pH for pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to work
        
        Pancreatic amylase
        
        Starch —> maltose
        
        Pancreatic protease(trypsin)
        
        Protein —> polypeptides
        
        Pancreatic lipase
        
        Fats —> Glycerol + 3 fatty acid chains
        
        Gallbladder
        
        Tougue
        
        Rolls food into a bolus(ball) and pushes it into throat
        
        Salivary glands
        
        Breaks down starch into maltose
        
        Liver
        
        Produces bile, stored in gallbladder
        
        Bile emulsifies globules into small droplets of fats
- - - - Can make a stationary object move
      - Can make an object move faster/slower
      - Can make a moving object stop
      - Can change the shape of an object
      - Can change the size of an object
    - - Contact forces & non-contact forces
        
        Contact forces
        
        Normal
        
        A force that is exerted when a 2nd object supports the 1st object, where the normal force is perpendicular to the surface and vice versa
        
        Tension
        
        When an object is pulled on both ends in opposite directions, both ends are experiencing tension force
        
        Friction(solid and solid)
        
        Fluid resistance
        
        Water resistance
        
        Air resistance
        
        Non-contact forces
        
        Gravitational force
        
        Weight formula: W = mg(mass multiplied by gravity)
        
        Weight SI unit is N, mass SI unit is kg
        
        Gravity: 9.81 N/kg
        
        Electromagnetic force
        
        Magnetic force
        
        Inertia
        
        The property of an object that resists changes in its motion
    - - Force diagram
    - - Newtons,in the form of “N”