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Comparative theories - Coggle Diagram
Comparative theories
6.1 Main ideas of realism
The security dilemma
Where the actions that one state takes to increase its security cause other states to follow suit, increasing the likelihood of conflict
Realists
believe defending internal security and stability is crucial, therefore states act as protectionists and build up military power and arms (which is important in a self-help system or system of
international anarchy
)
However
liberals
argue this is self-defeating and counterproductive, as other states respond by increasing their military capability correspondingly this creates an arms race, which increases the insecurity of all
Kenneth Waltz
argued that states become obsessed with security because of the anarchy in the international system
Realists argue the security dilemma can sometimes ensure stability and a balance of power -
bipolarity
- as this creates a clear power structure ensured by MAD
However liberals argue the security dilemma and bipolarity are extremely dangerous and cause global insecurity (eg
Cuban Missile Crisis
and proxy wars during Cold War period)
John Mearsheimer
argues the security dilemma is inescapable - since no state knows how much power it needs to gain security, the most rational policy is to dominate and become the global hegemon
6.3 Divisions between realism and liberalism
Likelihood of conflict
Realists
Conflict is unavoidable as states are self-interested (link to
Hobbes' state of nature
)
Conflict is inevitable as states seek to maximise their power -
John Mearsheimer
argued the need for security and survival makes states aggressive power maximisers (
offensive realism
),
Hans Morgenthau
argued power is the dominant national interest of states
There is no greater authority than the nation state and no one can force obedience to international law (
anarchical society
and
Hedley Bull
)
Defending internal security and stability is crucial - best done through well enforced borders and clear, enforced laws -
Kenneth Waltz
described nation states as 'power maximisers'
Every state is potentially a threat to other states - cooperation is therefore meaningless (
Kenneth Waltz
- states naturally fear each other as there is no higher authority)
The natural state of the world order is for states to compete for power - therefore conflict is inevitable (
John Mearsheimer
- states are competitive and seek to diminish each other's power)
Liberals
Conflict is inevitable, but is avoidable, and should only be used as a last resort
All efforts should be made to prevent and reduce conflict
IGOs
such as the UN offer forums for conflict resolution
Globalisation and deep economic cooperation has bound states together and reduces the likelihood of conflict - the EU has created a 'zone of peace' in Europe through
complex interdependence
and the
spread of democracy
(the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012)
The EU has spread democracy through its democratic requirements of member states - Turkey has been refused accession due to its lack of democracy (
Kant's democratic peace theory
)
IGOs act as a restraint on conflict as they are means of peaceful dispute resolution between states - UN interventions such as in Sierra Leone's civil war have helped achieve resolution
Economic interdependence
and free trade in the global system has made states more dependent on each other, making it more likely conflict would be mutually harmful
Widespread global free trade has lessened the likelihood of states fighting for resources and territory
Robert Keohane
believes states are naturally cooperative and argued that states pursue mutually beneficial activities such as trade and environmental protection, which can reduce conflict (
neoliberal institutionalism
) - also emphasised the benefits of complex interdependence and IGOs
Francis Fukuyama
argued liberal democracy is the final form of government for all nations and will lead to a state of idealised harmony
International organisations and states
Realists: States
States are the primary and most powerful actors in global politics - nation states are the most legitimate actors (links to
anarchical society
and
Hedley Bull
's 'society of states')
States reflect selfish human nature (
Hobbes' state of nature
) by pursuing their self-interest (
Mearsheimer's offensive realism
- states are aggressive power maximisers)
Hans Morgenthau
- as there is no central authority, states are forced to be protectionist, power is the dominant national interest
Sovereignty is an absolute concept and should not be violated, limited or given away
States should be wary of giving up too much sovereignty to IGOs such as the EU - if involved an IGO, powers such as a veto are important in protecting national interests (UNSC)
Realists: International organisations
Non-state actors such as IGOs are limited and meaningless
Cooperation of IGOs such as the EU or NATO are destined to fail because the success of IGOs rests on decisions and agreements of member states, which often act outside the rules of these groups
Hans Morgenthau
- national interests are superior to universal ideals
John Mearsheimer
- states do not cooperate and seek to diminish each other's power whilst enhancing their own
States still have the power to act unilaterally - eg Russia's annexation of Crimea (2014) and invasion of Ukraine (2022)
IGOs and other forms of cooperation only exist because nation states created them, they are still supreme eg Brexit
Liberals: States
States are important actors in global politics, but they work amongst a complex web of interdependence with other actors such as IGOs and NGOs
Sovereignty exists to be used to a state's advantage, but this means pooling sovereignty and sharing it with other states, such as in the EU - in this way sovereignty can make a state more powerful and effective
Robert Keohane
- states are naturally cooperative and pursue mutually beneficial activities such as trade and environmental protection - states are rational egoists but self-interest can lead to cooperation
The idea of an international community does exist as an aspiration to work towards - states share interests, values and attitudes - eg defending human rights is in global interest (R2P)
Liberals: International organisations
International law eg UDHR, often enforced through international organisations, is possible and desirable - the world order should be based in clearly agreed international rules (
cooperative world order
- links to
socialist collectivism
)
IGOs such as the UN offer forums for conflict resolution and the spread of democracy the EU has achieved through economic interdependence has decreased the likelihood of conflict
Robert Keohane's neoliberal institutionalism
- international institutions further state's interests through cooperation
It is possible to impose order on humans from above, through a rules-based system of international law
IGOs act as a restraint on conflict because they are a means of peaceful dispute resolution between states - eg the UN intervention in Sierra Leone (1999-2006) helped resolve the civil war and special UN tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda prosecuted war criminals
Human nature and power
Realists: Human nature
Human nature is naturally selfish and egotistical (
Hobbes' state of nature
) therefore states are exclusively self-interested
Humans and states are motivated by self-centred desires
Human nature is fixed and driven and cannot be changed, so states are motivated by a desire to dominate and have power over others
Morgenthau
- power is the dominant national interest
States are motivated by a need to survive particularly in a global self-help system where there's no guarantee of any other state helping them
Realists: Power
All states are ultimately trying to increase their power and influence within the global order - states are selfish
Mearsheimer
- the need for security and survival makes states aggressive power maximisers (
offensive realism
)
Powerful states will always be able to overcome weaker states - there is nothing more powerful than the nation state
Threats and the use of force are particularly important types of power to possess and maximise, especially in a self-help system where nobody can be trusted to protect the state security (
international anarchy
)
The primary goal and motivation of states is to increase their power
Other non-state actors are limited and meaningless - cooperation of IGOs are ill-fated
This is because the success of IGOs rests on the decisions of states who often act unilaterally and outside the rules of these groups (eg Russia, Iraq invasion)
Nation states still have supremacy over IGOs - eg Brexit
Liberals: Human nature
Optimistic view of human nature
Humans and therefore states can improve and develop
Humans are committed to individual liberty and freedom and have a high regard for human rights
Humans (and states) prefer to work in partnership with each other and look for opportunities to do so (links to
socialist
idea of
common humanity
- humans are naturally social and prefer to work collectively)
Therefore international cooperation through IGOs is possible and desirable
Liberals: Power
The use of power, particularly military, can often be counterproductive eg the
security dilemma
(Cuban Missile Crisis 1962)
Military power is not the only form of significant power - economic power and free trade links can enable states to become richer and more stable and secure - therefore it is in a state's best interests to cooperate in this way
Hard power should only be used as a last resort
Liberals believe in a
cooperative world order
- a state's primary aim should not merely be to become more powerful, particularly not at the expense of other states (
Keohane
- states are naturally cooperative)
Instead liberals believe in
complex interdependence
and globalisation (
Keohane's neoliberal institutionalism
) - cooperation and interconnectedness is the direction of travel for global politics
6.2 Main ideas of liberalism
Complex interdependence
Term coined by
Robert Keohane
and
Joseph Nye
to describe how states and their fortunes are inextricably linked together
Free trade promotes economic interdependence - states rely on each other for goods and trade promotes the exchange of values and ideas
Kant
emphasised complex interdependence between states and outlined this in his
Kantian Triangle
He believed
democracy
,
economic interdependence
and
international organisations
were the 'three definitive articles' required for international peace
Robert Keohane
argued that states are naturally cooperative and pursue mutually beneficial activities such as trade and environmental protection
Kenichi Ohmae
argues as a result of globalisation, political borders and militaries are becoming less important as countries are forming an increasing interlinked global economy
Complex interdependence is characterised by:
Development of channels of actions between societies in interstate, transgovernmental and transnational relations - states are no longer autonomous international actors
Growing prominence of economic and other issues in world politics over defence and foreign policy
States increasingly prioritising trade over war, leading to a decline in the use of military force and coercive power
The EU
has the highest level of economic interdependence of any regional or international organisation
It is a completely tariff-free zone, there are no import or export duties on all goods, there is a single currency for the majority of member states and there is free movement of people and capital
It is highly unlikely that EU member states would go to war with each other as the states are mutually dependent and interconnected
6.5 The extent to which realism and liberalism explain developments since 2000 in global politics
Examples of liberalism
UN millennium and sustainable development goals
All 191 UN members and 22 organisations signed up
Eight international development goals were created for 2015 at the Millennium summit - focusing on poverty, education, gender equality and environmental sustainability amongst others
Creation of the ICC in 2002
First permanent court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for international crimes
124 countries are states parties to the ICC (not the US)
However the ICC is accused of Western imperialism by African states
2015 Paris Agreement
Aims to keep global temperature increase below 1.5°
195 states of the UNFCCC are parties to the agreement - however Iran, Libya and Yemen have not ratified the agreement
International response to 2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake
105 countries and 16 international organisations have pledged support
11 countries provided search and rescue teams
World Bank pledged $1.78 billion in aid to Turkey
Less support for Syria due to Western sanctions and government limitations on humanitarian organisations
Examples of realism
Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014
Russia invaded Crimea following the Revolution of Dignity - which ousted pro-Russian president Yanukovych and led to pro-Western government in Kiev
Trump's withdrawal from the Paris Agreement
Trump withdrew from the Paris Agreement in 2017 due to concerns over the economy and scepticism over climate change
Trump's pledge to 'build a wall' between the US and Mexico
Trump pledged to build the wall between the US and Mexico due to concerns over illegal immigration, national security and border control
Lack of international agreement on response to the Syrian civil war
Russia have vetoed many UNSC resolutions to the Syrian conflict which are critical of the Syrian government - hindering action
Regional powers including Iran and Turkey support different factions in Syria hindering solution
2024 attacks in the Red Sea between the US-UK coalition and Houthi rebels
Yemeni Houthi rebels have attacked Israeli, US and UK ships in the Red Sea due to Israel's invasion of Gaza - the US-UK coalition have since bombed the Houthis
6.4 Main ideas of the anarchical society and society of states theory
Hedley Bull's
society of states theory accepts the neorealist premise that there is anarchy in the international system, due to the absence of world government, but says that among the chaos a society of states has emerged
There is no inevitable conflict or power struggle which can only be avoided by a balance of power
Bull acknowledges the realist principle that states act out of self-interest, but recognises that states can make the rational decision to work together for mutually beneficial outcomes
The society of states is different from global governance or supranationalism as states cooperate to create a set of norms and valules via alternative forms of organisations, such as a balance of power, international law, diplomacy and international organisations
Bull bridges the gap between realist anarchy and liberal interdependence
Acceptance of anarchy in the international system
As states do not accept any higher authority, they exist in a condition of international anarchy
However this does not lead inevitably to a struggle for power that can only be avoided by a balance of power, as claimed by realists
Conflict can be avoided by the existence of a
society of states
, which is distinct from the realist system of states
Therefore the
anarchical society
can be seen as a form of liberal realism
States have an informal understanding that ensures a degree of cooperation
Bull argued that states become aware that they share a set of interests and values and so develop institutions and a set of rules, norms and values by which they agree to be bound
Bull claimed alternative forms of organisation, such as regional and international organisations, but state cooperation provides the best chance of achieving order in world politics
The society of states is different from global governance or supranationalism as states still cooperate as sovereign entities - they don't give up power to a higher authority eg the EU
The society of states theory can be criticised because it does not explain or account for the development of supranational bodies, such as the WTO and ICC
The UN
The use of the veto by the permanent members of the UNSC shows how states cooperate, but only as far as it is in their national interests - Russia has continually used its veto over its invasion of Ukraine and to protect the Assad regime in Syria, and the US has used its veto to protect Israel from condemnation over its occupation of Palestine
The UN Charter, which is committed to protecting human rights, can be seen as having developed a set of rules, norms and values which reflect the shared values and interests of states
The UN further developed this with the 'responsibility to protect' principle in 2005, which requires states to protect their citizens from genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity - it also requires the international community, through the UN, to use appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and peaceful means to protect human rights