APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY AO1

APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY AO1

Origins of Psychology: Wundt

1879 opened first lab dedicated to psychology

marked beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from philosophy

Introspection

gain knowledge about own mental + emotional state as a result of observation of examination/observation of their conscious thoughts + feelings

looked at stimulus + reflecting on how it made them feel, what they could + hear

first systematic attempt to study mind under controlled conditions to analyse nature of human consciousness + mental processes

Standardised

stimuli always presented in same order + same instructions always given so possible to compare + establish general theories

Structuralism

isolating structure of consciousness

structure of consciousness identified by breaking it into basic structures: thoughts, images, sensations

Behaviourist Approach

Social Learning Theory

Assumptions

observable behaviour

rejected introspection for vagueness

controlled + objective lab studies

tabula rasa

all species governed by same learning laws so animals replace humans in studies

Classical Conditioning

association

Pavlov showed dogs could be conditioned to salivate to sound of bell if sound repeatedly presented at same time food given

learnt to associate bell (stimulus) with food (another stimulus)

neutral stimulus can come to elicit new learned response (conditioned response)

association of UCS with NS to produce CR + CS

Operant Conditioning

consequence

Skinner suggested learning active process where humans + animals operate on environment

+ve reinforcement

reward for certain behaviour

-ve reinforcement

avoiding something unpleasant resulting in +ve outcome

punishment

unpleasant consequence

Skinner Box

+ve reinforcement - each time animal activated lever in box it was rewarded with food pellet + then continued to perform behaviour

-ve reinforcement - animals conditioned to perform same behaviour to avoid unpleasant consequence such as electrocution

Assumptions

agreed learn from experience

proposed learning through observation + imitation

learning occurs directly through CC + OC but also indirectly

Badura - important mental processes which mediate between stimulus + response

Vicarious Reinforcement

individual observes behaviour of others

imitation tends to only occur if behaviour seen to be rewarded

Mediational Processes

thinking between observing + imitating

important role of cognitive factors in learning

mediate between S---R

bridging gap between behaviourist theory + cognitive approach

ARRM

attention

retention

reporduction

motiviation

Identification

more likely to imitate people we identify with

modelling = imitate role model

Bandura

when children observed adult being aggressive towards Bobo doll they behaved much more aggressively than those who'd observed non-aggressive adult

Bandura + Walters

showed children video of adult behaving aggressively to Bobo doll

one group saw adult praised for behaviour, 2nd saw adult punished for behaviour + 3rd group saw no consequence of aggression

1st group most aggressive, followed by 3rd group then 2nd

Cognitive Approach

Assumptions

internal mental processes can be studies scientifically

investigated parts of human behaviour neglected by behaviourists

private processes studied indirectly by making inferences about what's going on in people's minds on basis of their behaviour

Inference

going beyond immediate research evidence

drawing conclusions about way mental processes operate on basis of observed behaviours

Schema

mental framework of beliefs + expectations that influence cognitive processing

packages of ideas + info learned through experience helping us to respond appropriately in situations

as we get older our schema become more detailed + sophisticated

Theoretical models

abstract

simplified representations of how mental processes work

often pictorial in nature, represented by boxes + arrows that indicate cause + effect or stages of a particular mental process

Computer models

development of computers + computer programming led to focus on way sensory info coded as it passes through system

computer analogy to explain human behaviour

Cognitive neuroscience

scientific study of biological structures which underpin cognitive processes

merging of biological + cognitive approaches

involves study of brain structures with associated mental processes

study of brain now more scientific due to technological advances

Biological Approach

Assumptions

Mind & Body

Neurochemistry

Genetics

Genotype/Phenotype

Evolution

everything psychological at first biological

behaviour explained + understood in terms of biological structures + processes within the body

interested in genetic basis of behaviour showing how some characteristics can be passed from generation to generation through genes

also study neural differences

one + the same

mind lives in the brain

all thoughts, feelings + behaviour ultimately have physical basis

action of chemicals in the brain

much of our thought + action relies on chemicals in the brain

imbalances could cause some mental disorders (e.g. under production of serotonin)

serotonin = important role in OCD + depression

lower levels of serotonin than normal transmission of mood relevant info doesn't take place = low moods

family, twin + adoption studies to assess genetic basis of a disorder/behaviour

concordance rate = measure of similarity in a given trait

higher concordance rate among identical twins compared to non-identical twins

Nestadt et al

reviewed twin studies + found 68% of identical twins shared OCD as opposed to 31% of non identical twins

Genotype

genetic makeup

PKU = rare genetic disorder that can be prevented with restricted diet

Phenotype

way genes expressed through physical, behavioural + psychological characteristics

many biological psychologists would accept much of human behaviour depends on interaction between inherited factors + environment (nature + nurture)

evolution of human behaviour occurs in same way as physical characteristics

genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival will be passed onto future generations

e.g. Bowlby's monotropic theory of attachment = attachment innate + social releasers developed

Psychodynamic Approach

Defence mechanisms

Psychosexual stages & adult personality

Tripartite personality

Sequence of the Stages

Unconscious mind

Electra/Oedipus Complex

Humanistic Approach

The Self

Congruence

Hierarchy of needs/Self Actualisation

Conditions of Worth

Free Will

Counselling

vast storehouse of biological drives + instincts

significant influence on behaviour

driving force behind behaviour/personality

protects conscious self from anxiety, fear + conflict

contains threatening + disturbing memories that have been repressed

repressed memories can be accessed through dreams or slips of the tongue

Preconscious mind

thoughts + memories not currently in conscious awareness but can be accessed if desired

Conscious mind

what we're aware of (tip of the iceberg)

pleasure principle

instinct/impulse

born with

seeks immediate gratification + ignorant of consequences

Ego

reality principle

2 years

mediates between demands of Id + Superego

seeks to dampen urges + lessen guilt

Superego

5 years

morality principle

makes moral demands + causes feelings of guilt for wrongdoing

pride for moral behaviour

Displacement

Denial

Repression

forcing distressing memories out of conscious mind

refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality

transferring feelings from true source of distressing memory onto substitute target

unconscious drive is sexual

children progress through stages in set sequential order of 5 stages

each stage marks different conflict child must resolve to progress to next stage

unresolved psychosexual conflict = fixation + certain behaviours/conflict will carry on into adult life

Oral

Anal

Phallic

Latency

Genital

0-1 years

focus of pleasure = mouth

unresolved conflict = oral fixation

1-3 years

focus of pleasure = anus

pleasure from withholding + expelling faeces

anal retentive = perfectionist, obsessive

anal expulsive = thoughtless, messy

3-6 years

focus of pleasure = genital area (Electra/Oedipus complex)

unresolved conflict = phallic personality: narcissistic, recklessness, exhibitionism

earlier conflict resolved

sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty

unresolved conflict = difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Electra Complex

Oedipus Complex

girls develop passionate, incestuous desire for fathers

see mothers as rival = jealousy so wish mother was dead

girls + have penis envy + believe mother castrated them

realise they can't have a penis so replace this desire for a penis with desire for a baby

boys develop passionate, incestuous desire for mothers

see fathers as rival = jealousy so wish father was dead

boys have castration anxiety as they're afraid father will discover desire for mother so will punish them by removing his penis

recognise father more powerful + believe he castrated mother

towards end of phallic stage children resolve conflicts by repressing feelings for + identifying with same sex parent which then develops superego

Freud said women never fully progress past this stage + will always maintain sense of inferiority + envy

human beings are self-determining + have free will

humans are active agents who can determine their own development

humanist psychologists reject scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour

person centred approach because as active agents we're all unique

innate desire to achieve full potential to become best possible self

self actualisation = highest level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs

lower levels = deficiency needs which must be met before individual can work towards self actualisation

applies to early development when baby first focussed on physiological needs

personal growth essential part of being human + is concerned with developing + changing as person to become fulfilled, satisfied + goal orientated

not everyone will manage this as there are psychological barriers that may prevent reaching of full potential

ideas + values that characterise 'I' + 'me'

includes perception + valuing of 'what I am' + 'what I can do'

for personal growth to be achieved way person sees themself must be congruent with person they want to be (ideal self)

if too big gap exists between the selves, person will experience incongruence + self actualisation won't be possible due to negative feelings of self worth

aim of therapy is to establish congruence

parents who impose conditions of worth may prevent personal growth

issues such as worthlessness + low self esteem have their roots in childhood + are due to a lack of unconditional positive regard from parents

parents who set boundaries on their love for child is storing up psychological problems for child in future

Rogers client centred therapy

effective therapist should provide client with genuineness, empathy + unconditional positive regard

aim's to increase feelings of self worth + aims to increase congruence

Rogers work transformed

Origins of Psychology: The Emergence of Psychology

Wundt's lab

1879 - Wundt opened first psychological enquiry lab in Leipzig, Germany

Wundt's work marked beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from philosophical roots

aim = analyse nature of human consciousness

first systematic attempt to study mind under controlled conditions

introspection

1900s - behaviourists rejected introspection

Watson argued introspection subjective + influenced by personal perspective

scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed + measured

1930s - behaviourist scientific approach dominated psychology

Skinner bought natural sciences into psychology

behaviourists focus on learning

carefully controlled lab studies dominated psychology for 50 years

1950s - cognitive approach studied mental processes scientifically

following computer revolution of 1950s, study of mental processes seen as legitimate in psychology

likened mind to computer

tested predictions about memory + attention using experiments

1980s - biological approach introduced technological advances

biological psychologists have taken advantage of advances in technology

recording brain activity + advanced genetic research

2000s - cognitive neuroscience

scientific study of biological structures which underpin cognitive processes

merging of biological + cognitive approaches to studying the mind

study of mind now more scientific than ever