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Internal factors in explaining class differences in educational…
Internal factors in explaining class differences in educational achievement
Labelling theory
Howard Becker (1971)
Interviewed 60 Chicago high school teachers and found that they judged students according to how closely they fitted the image of the “ideal pupil”.
Pupils’ work, conduct and appearance were factors that influenced judgements.
Those from middle class backgrounds were closest to the ideal and workingclass furthest away as they were regarded as badly behaved
Amelia Hempel-Jorgenson (2009)
Different teachers may have different notions of the ideal pupil
In a mainly w/c primary school where discipline was a major problem, the ideal pupil was classified as quiet, passive and obedient. So pupils were defined in terms of behaviour and not ability
In a mainly m/c primary school where there were few discipline problems, the ideal pupil was defined in terms of personality and academic ability instead of being “non misbehaving"
Dunne and Gazeley
Labelling in secondary schools
Argue “schools persistently produce working class underachievement” because of labels and assumptions of teachers
From interviews in 9 secondary schools, they found that pupils “normalised” the underachievement of w/c pupils and seemed unconcerned or like they couldn’t do anything about it whereas they believed that they could overcome the underachievement of m/c students
Teachers tended to label working class parents as uninterested in their children’s education but labelled middle class parents as supportive
This led to class differences in how teachers dealt with students they thought were underachieving. Middle class pupils got extension tasks but working class pupils were entered to easier exams.
Ray Rist (1970)
labelling in primary schools
His study shows that labelling occurs from the outset of a child’s educational career.
He found teacher’s used information about a child’s background and appearance to put them in separate groups
Those who were fast learners tended to be middle class and of neat and clean appearance, they were seated nearest to the teacher and she showed them the greatest encouragement.
Those seated further away were more likely to be working class and were given lower level books to read
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Is a prediction that comes true simply by virtue of it having been made
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
They told a California primary school they had test to identify pupils who would “spurt” ahead but it was in fact just a standard IQ test.
Researchers then selected 20% of pupils at random and told the school they’d identified them as “spurters” and when they went back to the school a year later, they found 47% of these students had made progress and the effect was greater on younger children.
They suggested that the teachers’ beliefs about the pupils had been influenced by the test results. The teachers then conveyed these beliefs to the pupils through their interactions with them e.g. through the amount of attention and encouragement that they give them
This demonstrates the self-fulfilling prophecy that if the prediction sad some pupils would spurt ahead, they brought this about
The self-fulfilling prophecy can also produce under- achievement and if teachers have low expectations of certain children and communicate this intheir interaction then these children may develop a negative self-concept.
They come to see themselves as failures and give up trying, and therefore fulfil the original prophecy
Streaming
involves separating children into different ability groups or classes called “streams”
Each ability group is then taught separately from the others for all subjects. Studies show that the self-fulfilling prophecy is particularly likely to occur when children are streamed
Teachers don’t usually see working class pupils as ideal. They tend to see them as lacking ability and have low expectations. As a result, working class children are more likely to be put into a lower stream.
Once streamed, it’s more or less impossible to move up to a higher stream and children in lower streams get the message that their teachers have written them off.
Douglas (1964)
Found that children placed in lower streams at age 8 suffered a decline in their IQ by age 11.
Middle class pupils benefitted from streaming. They were more likely to be placed in higher streams reflecting teachers’ views of them as ideal pupils.
They therefore were able to develop a more positive self-view, gain confidence, work harder and improve their grades
Streaming and the A - C economy
Gillborn and Youdell (2001)
Teachers use stereotypical notions of “ability” to stream pupils.
They found teachers are less likely to see working class pupils as having ability, so they’re placed in lower streams and entered for lower-tier GCSEs.They are denied the knowledge and opportunity needed to gain good grades
They link streaming to the policy of publishing exam league tables. Schools need a good league table position to attract pupils and funding.
This then leads to the A-C economy which is a system in which the school focuses their time and resources on pupils who will get five C’s and boost the league table position.
Educational triage
Argue that the A -C economy promotes educational triage
Pupils are sorted into 3 categories:
Those who will pass and can be left to get on with it
Those with potential who will be helped to get a grade C or above
Those who are doomed to fail
The need to get a good league table position drives educational triage.
It becomes the basis for streaming where teachers’ beliefs about the lack of ability of w/c pupils are used to segregate them so they receive less attention, support and resources, resulting in lower levels of achievement for w/c pupils.
Pupil Subcultures
is a group of pupils who share similar values and behaviour patterns. They often emerge as a response to how pupils have been labelled, and in particular as a response to streaming.
Colin Lacey (1970)
Differentiation:
the process of teacher’s categorising pupils according to how they perceive their attitude, ability or behaviour
Those that the school deems “more able” are given a high status by being placed in a high stream.
Whereas those who are “less able” and placed in low streams are given inferior status
Polarisation
the process in which pupils respond to streaming by moving to one of the two poles
Lacey found that streaming polarised boys into a pro - school or an anti-school subculture
Abolish streaming
Stephen Ball
He found that when a school abolished banding, the basis for pupils to polarise into subcultures was largely removed and the influence of the anti-school subculture declined
Differentiation continued and teachers continued to be more likely to label middle class pupils as cooperative and able.
Since the Education Reform Act (1988) there has been a trend towards more streaming and towards a variety of types of school, some of which are more academic than others.
This has created new opportunities for schools and teachers to differentiate between pupils based on their class, ethnicity or gender and treat them unequally
Variety pupil response
Peter Woods (1979)
Argues other responses are possible to steaming and labelling:
Integration: Being the 'teachers pet'
Ritualism: going through the motions of staying in and out of trouble
Retreatism: Daydreaming and mucking about
Rebellion: outright rejection of everything the school stands for
John Furlong
suggests many students may not be committed to each response and move between them, in different lessons and with different teachers