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Perception and Individual Decision Making - Coggle Diagram
Perception and Individual Decision Making
Factors influence perception
Perceiver
Personal characteristics
(attitudes, personality, motives, interests,
past experiences, and expectations)
Power/ status
Target
Background
Novelty
Motion
Sounds
Size
Proximity
Similarity
Situation
Time we perceive
Work setting
Social setting
Attribution theory
Definition
Explain the ways we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to their behavior, such as determining whether an individual’s behavior is internally or externally caused.
Internal or External Causation
When we observe behavior --> determine whether INTERNALLY or EXTERNALLY caused
Internally caused
: those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual
Externally caused
: resulting from outside causes
3 factors affecting causal determination
Distinctiveness
whether an individual displays different behavior in different situations
Consensus
Everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way
Consistency
Does the person respond the same way over time?
Errors and Biases in Attribution
Fundamental attribution error
Underestimate the influence of external factors
Overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors.
Self-serving bias
Individuals attribute their own successes to internal factors
Link between PERCEPTION and DECISION MAKING
Decision
Def:
choosing from two or more alternatives
Decision making: occur as reaction to problem
Problem
: discrepancy between the current state and some desired state.
Rational model of decision making with bounded rationality and intuition
Rational decision making model
Definition:
describes how individuals should behave to maximize some out come
Steps
Define problem
Identify decision criteria
Allocate weights to criteria
Develop alternatives
Evaluate alternatives
Select best alternative
Bounded rationality
Most people respond to a complex problem by reducing it to a level at which it can be readily understood.
People
satisfice
: seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient.
Intractable problem
problem that may change entirely or become irrelevant before we finish the process of organizing our thoughts, gathering information, analyzing the information, and making judgments or decisions
Intuition
Intuitive decision making
Def:
Unconscious process created out of distilled experience
occurs outside conscious thought
relies on holistic associations, or links between disparate pieces of information
fast, affectively charged, usually engages the emotions.
=>> Not inherently bad or necessarily wrong
Common Biases and Errors
Overconfidence
Individuals whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and ability
Anchoring
fixating on initial information as a starting point and failing to adequately adjust for subsequent information.
Confirmation
Seek out information that reaffirms past choices, and discount information that contradicts past judgments
Availability
tendency for people to base judgments on information that is readily available.
Escalation of Commitment
staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it’s wrong.
Randomness
tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events.
Risk Aversion
tendency to prefer a sure thing instead of a risky outcome.
Reducing
Focus on Goals
Look for Information That Disconfirms Your Beliefs
Do Not Try to Create Meaning out of Random Events
Increase Your Options
Hindsight
tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known.
Definition
process by which we organize and interpret sensory impressions to give meaning to our environment
Common Shortcuts in Judging Others
Selective perception
characteristic that makes a person, object stand out --> increase the probability of being perceived
cannot observe evething going on around -->
selective
Halo effect
draw a positive general impression based on a single characteristic
Horns effect
draw a negative general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic
Contrast effects
not evaluate a person in isolation
reaction to one person is influenced by other persons we have recently encountered
Stereotyping
Judging someone based on one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs
Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations
Employment Interview
Interviewers generally draw early impressions that become very quickly entrenched
most interviewers’ decisions change very little after the first four or five minutes of the interview
Performance Expectations
people will attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when those perceptions are faulty.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
: people’s expectations determine their behavior.
Performance Evaluation
employee’s performance appraisal is very much dependent upon the perceptual process
Many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms
Subjective measures are problematic because of the errors we have discussed.
Social Media
Many org use social media to screen CV
affect Decision-making bias
Potential Remedies
AI-assisted performance assessments
Other decision-support systems
Individual Differences, Organizational Constraints
Individual Differences
Personality
Intuition
Self-esteem
Narcissism
Gender
Mental Ability
Cultural Differences
Organizational Constraints
Performance Evaluation Systems
Reward Systems
Formal Regulations
Time Constraints
Historical Precedents
Decision-Making in Times of Crisis
3 Ethical decision criteria
Utilitarianism
Provide greatest for all
Whistleblowers
Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders.
Deonance
Ethical decisions are made because you “ought to” in order to be consistent with moral norms principles, standards, rules, or laws.
Three-Stage Model of Creativity
Causes of Creative Behavior
Creative behavior
Creative outcomes