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Beliefs in Society - ideology and science - flashcards done - Coggle…
Beliefs in Society - ideology and science - flashcards done
Science as a belief system x
Dixon - differences between science and religion x
Science
Empirical
limits itself to that which can be observed and measured
open knowledge
falsification
is the norm
cumulative
knowledge evolves, gradually built on previous findings
objective
subjective feelings have no place
Religion
supernatural
concerns itself with God, the existence of which cannot be
empirically
verified
closed knowledge
not open to challenge
absolute knowledge
knowledge already laid down by God, unchanging
subjective
faith can be a personal thing
the impact of science x
likes to see itself as objective and value free
the success of science has led to the widespread faith in it - it can deliver effective change
modern advancements
faith in science has been said to have dimmed of late, as it is acknowledges that the advancements caused by science have damaged society
E.g.
nuclear bombs
both the good and the bad effects of science demonstrate the key feature distinguishing it from other belief systems or knowledge claims - its
cognitive power
open and closed belief system x
open x
science is open to social influences
science aspires to be an open belief system, meaning research is open to scrutiny, questions and testing
therefore, scientific knowledge is provisional as it is liable to change
ideology and religion x
both considered
closed
belief systems
they assert a consistent body of belief, which makes claims which cannot be disproved
evidence against the belies or ideology are rebuffed by believers
Horton - religion as a closed belief system x
science is an open system, meaning it is
fundamentally different
to religion
religious knowledge is seen by its followers as
'sacred' knowledge
and therefore is unquestionable and 'perfect' knowledge.
therefore is is not open to scrutiny (
Popper - falsification)
it only exists if the system is like this.
religious beliefs cannot be challenged - they are fixed
systems such as religion magic and the supernatural have 'get-out devices' which allow them to explain anything away
Evans-Pritchard x
Witchcraft among the Azande - example of a closed belief systm
Azande do not believe in chance or coincidence, they use witchcraft to explain misfortune
the injured party may make an accusation of someone being a witch
the issue may be resolved by consulting an oracle - who is cursing them?
Social functions
clears the air and prevents the holding of grudges
encourages people to behave considerately
witchcraft is hereditary children have a vested interest in keeping parents inline as accusations of witchcraft would damage the child's reputation
Polanyi x
religions are closed belief systems - they claim to have special, perfect knowledge of the absolute truth
this means that religious knowledge can't be
challenged or changed
three devices of protection from challenge
Circularity
each idea is explained in terms of another
subsidiary explainations
use of the other possible explanations - like the Benge (it was their fault)
denial of legitimacy to reivals
denial of the claims made by others - e.g. Science and evolution
Popper x
principle of falsification
- researchers should aim to prove themselves wrong
therefore if the hypothesis stands up to tests it can be considered
'scientific truth'
- otherwise the theory will be false and a better explanation can be found
scientific knowledge is cumulative, therefore
falsified knowledge
allows understanding to grow
Merton - the CUDOS norms x
science can only thrive as an institution if it
receives support from other institutions and values
this first occurred in England due to the values and attitudes of the
protestant reformation
and the belief that the
study of nature led to appreciation of god's work.
science as an institution, needed an ethos that makes scientists
serve the goal of increasing knowledge:
Communism
- scientists must share knowledge with the community
universalism
- the truth or felsify of scientific knowledge is judged by universal, objective criteria
Disinterestedness
- committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake
Organised Scepticism
- no knowledge claim is regarded sacred
closed x
polanyi x
science often
'dodges contradictions'
-
Dr Velikovsky's theories
which contradicted most basic assumptions about science was disregard and rejected without thought or consideration
all belief systems reject
fundamental changes in their knowledge claims
, and science is no different
Kuhn - 'scientific knowledge' x
scientists must work within the
existing set of shared assumptions
that exist
new scientists are
'socialised' into these paradigms
and groomed so that they accept this paradigm and can thus 'fit in'
those who accept the paradigm and reach the
'Right' answers are rewarded
e.g. more funding, professorships, awards, etc (therefore
values inform research direction, reducing objectivity
; additionally, funding may favour some topics (weapons) more than others)
any discovery must be based on and tested against agreed measures
if scientists challenge these assumptions they may be
ignored, ridiculed or even removed from the profession
whereas the ones who make discoverers within the existing paradigm are rewarded
what passes as scientific truth may often be more an
act of faith is scientific values than of scientific rigour
every so often so much evidence mounts up against the existing paradigm that there is a
complete paradigm shift
and the whole process starts again
Knorr-Cetina - 'Social Construction x'
scientific knowledge is Socially Constructed by highlighting that all knowledge is socially constructed as it relies on the
interpretations of people and the resources and instruments
available to them
laboratory settings are
artificial
and therefore is
far removed from the natural world
that scientists are supposedly studying
Woolgar - 'little green men x'
no matter what they are faced with, Scientists must ultimately
interpret
the things that they discover and observe
Example
- When Cambridge Scientists discovered 'Pulsars' they labelled these initial signals as LGM1 and LGM2 (Little Green Men 1 and 2)
this was
not a scientifically acceptable interpretation
, so they then suggested that the signals represented a previously unknown type of star.
there's still debate over
what these signals actually mean
Evaluation x
Marxist x
- science of ballistics can be said to reflect the needs of the R/C to protect themselves.
Feminists x
- the science of ballistics can be see as a means by which men fight for dominance.
Feminists x
- the science of childbirth and contraception might be seen as a way that men are using to help them control women's bodies.
some ideologies use scientific knowledge to further their cause
, some use religions knowledge, some use both - this is to suit the needs of a particular social group.
postmodernists - Lyotard x
- science is one of a number of meta-narratives that falsely claim to possess the truth.
science falsely claims to find the truth about how the world works as a means of progress to a better society, whereas in reality, science is just
one more 'discourse' or way of thinking that is used to dominate people.
in postmodern societies, it is being suggested that societies are becoming
less trusting in science and more inclined to look towards other belief systems instead
sociological perspectives x
Marxists x
suggests that
science is based on ideology, as it serves the needs of capitalism
technological innovation is a result of capitalist need to increase profits - healthcare is seen as a result of the need to have healthy workers.
Feminists x
suggests that
science is based on ideology, as it is designed to oppress women
women's achievements are largely ignored in the scientific community and aspect of biological determinism have been used to establish male superiority over females.
Postmodernists x
science is just
one of many truths about society
- one of many ideologies.
Functionalists x
argue that science is
not based on an ideology as it is objective.
science is based upon social facts and value-free - therefore being
unable to be ideologically biased.
interactionalists x
see science as a social construct - scientific knowledge is given value based upon
society's reaction to it and so is socially constructed
Ideology x
As a belief system x
can give a distorted, biased view of reality
ideas that justify the privileges of a certain group
ideas that conceal reality and so prevent change
a self-sustaining beliefs system that is closed to criticism
Zizek - SEE NOTES TO EXPLAIN
Definition x
worldviews or sets of ideas and values
when belief systems are
exploited to suit the needs of a particular social group
, they then become part of an
ideology
some ideologies use
scientific knowledge
to further their cause, some use
religious knowledge
, some use
both
Different types/views x
pluralist ideology x
idea of
power
in society representing a
broad range
of views and social interests.
power is spread across competing interest groups and individuals, with
no single one having overall control of power
.
many ideologies living alongside each other
none can claim the only right way of viewing the world
Evaluation x
falls into a trap of stating that there is a broad range of social groups which are
approved of and welcomed
, but in reality, it ignores the
inequality or unequal power distribution that exists
ignores that not all social groups are equally able to i
nfluence those in power, or get their views accepted
as part of the prevailing vision in society
tries to
conceal
the fact that there is an
unequal distribution of power in society
, by trying to persuade us that this isn't the case.
maxism: ideology and hegemony x
society is divided into
2 classes
- bourgeoisie and the proletariat
R/C win the means fo production and control the state
W/C are forces to
sell their labour
to the capitalists, they are
exploited for profit
before a revolution can take place, the proletariat must
class consciousness
difficult as the R/C
control the economy and ideas in society
R/C
ideology justifies exploitation
Marxism and R/C ideology
equality is against human nature
society is
meritocratic
- you deserve your position
racists ideas divide balck and white making them
easier to control
nationalist ideas
- W/C and R/C have more in common then workers of the world.
These create false class consciousness and prevents social change
Gramsci x
Hegmony
DEF:
- R/C ideological domination of society
W/C posses dual consciousness
- a mixture of ideology and ideas created by their own experiences of exploitation
Revolution
W/C need
political organisation and direction
to realise their exploitation
organic intellectuals
- workers who develop class consciousness
Evaluation
some argue that it
isn't the existence of ideology that prevents revolution
Abercrombie x
- argues that it is in fact the
fear of economic consequences
which prevents them from wanting to overthrow the system
the ideology of nationalism (Marxism, functionalism and Gellner) x
Ideology of Nationalism x
nations are
real, distinctive communities
each with its own
unique characteristic
and a long,
shared history
every nation should be
self-governing
national loyalty and identity should
come before all others
, such as tribe, class or religion
Anderson x
argues that a nation is only an 'imagined community', and not a real one
although we identify with it we will
never know most of its other members
this imagined community can bind millions of strangers together and create a sense of
common purpose
Marxism: Nationalism as false consciousness x
view that nationalism is a form of
false class consciousness
which helps prevent the overthrowing of capitalism by
dividing the international working force
Marx x
wanted to see the world unite under one banner
divided people based on nation. More in common with capitalists in own country than workers of other countries.
Example
- W/C fight wars for 'nations' rather than against capitalists
Functionalism: Nationalism as civil religion x
Durkheim x agrees with Bellah
nationalism is a
secular civil religion
- is integrates people into larger social and political units by making them
feel apart of something bigger than themselves
modern secular societies often include many different religions, which can
lead to conflict
whereas nationalism acts as it unites everyone behind a
common national community
links to
education and creating social solidarity
- collective items such as flags and national anthems
Gellner: Nationalism and Modernity x
modern phenomenon created by
industrialisation which created large impersonal societies.
Nationalism creates a common language to help
economic and social cooperation
nationalism is a
'smoke-screen'
The nation
>
product of modernity
>
modern societies (everybody is 'equal')
>
modern societies are impersonal
>
education is a mechanism for bringing people together
>
united in the nation
helps people
cope with hardships of initial industrialisation
and allows state to modernize.
Mannheim: Ideology and utopias x
all belief systems have a
one sided world view
from a particular group or class and its interests -
partial truths
as a result, contrasting ideologies lead to
conflict
, and the only solution is to have
free floating intelligentsia detached from both thoughts
who could then give us a
total worldview
distinguishes between
two types of worldview
Ideological thought
conservative ideology that justifies
keeping things the way they are
, benefits privileged groups
Utopian thought
seeks social change
, it reflects the interests of the underprivileged and shows different ways of organising society
feminism and ideology x
see gender inequality as the
fundamental division and patriarchal ideology
is used to justify this
gender difference is a
feature of all societies
and there are different ideologies justifying it.
Marks x
argues that
science
has been used to
justify exclusion from education
as it was believed that education would lead to a
'new puny and unfeminine race that distracts women from their true vocation'
argues that some
patriarchal religion beliefs and practices
have also been used as justification to define women as inferior
stating women as
impure and unclean
due to childbirth and menstruation
examples
Psychology invented the condition of '
hysteric
' in the 19th C to keep women out of public life.
Ideology and Religion x
religion offers us a vision of understanding, interpreting and explaining the world.
three main aspects of religion:
beliefs in the spiritual ans supernatural
faith on the part of the believers
a body of unchanging truth
Similarities
religion can become a part of an ideology - e.g. R/C us religion to further their own interests
Differences
religion tend sot focus on supernatural, whereas ideologies look at interests of social groups
is religion ideological x
YES x
Marxists x
suggests religion can be
based upon ideology
agency of secondary socialisation
- religion can pass on the norms and values of the R/C in order to control the W/C. This can be to
legitimise poverty and suffering as being worthy of God
, allowing the R/C to continue to exploit workers.
Feminists x
suggestst religion is a
patriarchal ideology
in some religions, women are portrayed as
subordinate to males
, and so religion transmits a patriarchal ideology
however
- New Age Movements and Goddess religions offer
alternatives to traditional religious views
Bellah - Civil religions x
can be
influenced by ideology
argued that American society had adopted a civil religion that held
national icons and artefacts as more sacred
then the icons and artifacts of the diverse religious practices within the USA
this can be seen to create a
nationalist ideology of 'American Exceptionalism'
NO x
Functionalists
view religion as a
reflection of value consensus
Durkheim, Parsons and Malinowski x
argue that religion performs
positive functions
for society that promote stability, ease suffering and bring people together in order to
maintain the norms and values of society
Durkheim x
argues that religion reinforces
social solidarity
within a group through having common sacred beliefs.
Parsons x
religion aids the maintenance of the
value consensus
, through offering explanations for the inexplicable
Malinowski x
religion performs valuable
psychological functions