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Plant Evolution - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Annular thickenings
      - Cooksonia
      - Water transport only (no support)
      - lingnified
      - Relatively long and wide
      - Ferns
        
        Tracheids and vessel elements in rhizomes of some species
      - Lycophytes
      - Pit Membranes
      - True Tracheids
        
        Lignified with ornamented walls
        
        Banded or pitted
        
        Evolved likely once
        
        Tapered at ends, rather narrow
        
        Function in both
        
        Water transport
        
        Support
        
        Pine Tracheids
        
        Function in water movement & support
        
        Torus-margo pit membrane, move to prevent cavitation
        
        Vessel elements
        
        Angiosperms
        
        Homogenous pit membrane
        
        Large diameter
        
        Dead and maturity
        
        Open, digested end walls
        
        Vessel element differentiation
        
        Apical meristem
        
        Vacuolization
        
        Elongation
        
        Secondary cell wall
        
        Annular
        
        Helical
        
        Reticulate
        
        Porous
        
        Dead at maturity
  - - - Poikilohydric
        
        water content changes with the moisture in the surrounding environment
        
        Equilibrate water potential through environmental source
        
        Water-storage extend
      - Stayed small to reduce demand for water
      - Live in perennially wet substrates (stream sides)
      - More derived homoiohydric
    - - Bryophytes
      - Water conducting cell
        
        No plasmodesmata (imperforate)
        
        Aid in refilling from cavitation
      - Apomorphic trait (similar function but different origin) to true vascular tissue
      - No lignin
    - - Die at maturity
      - Thickened lignin walls
        
        Waterproofing
        
        Structural support
    - - Partially Thickened
        
        Rhynia
        
        Vascular tissue not lignified
      - Lignified tracheids
        
        Horneophyton
        
        Annular cell wall
        
        Xylem secondary cell walls robust
        
        Phloem is crushed
        
        Ring width determined by season and environment
        
        Alternation of early wood and late wood
        
        Based on season or environment
        
        Spring to fall
        
        Larger elements to smaller elements
        
        Helical cell wall
      - During Devonian
        
        Increase in xylem content
        
        Increase in tracheid size
        
        Increase in tracheid reinforcement
  - - - Widespread in bryophytes
      - Specialized plasmodesmata in end walls
      - Alignment along longitudinal arrays of endoplasmic microtubules
        
        Plastids
        
        Mitochondria
        
        ER vesicles
      - Breakdown of tonoplast
        
        Mix vacuolar & cytoplasmic contents
      - Rarely some species have nuclear breakdown
      - Features common to sieve cells
    - - Transports:
        
        Photosynthate
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric signals
      - Gymnosperms
      - Earlier lineages with various types including transitional, sieve elements
      - Sieve area pores narrow
      - Uniform sieve areas
        
        Mostly on ends, lacks sieve plate
      - Sieve tube element features
        
        Sieve Plate
        
        Area with many sieve pores
        
        Usually on end wal
        
        Many sieve tube elements together, sieve tube
        
        Primary Cell Wall
        
        Living protoplasts at maturity
        
        Few organelles (ER)
        
        Sieve plate
        
        Sieve pore
        
        Lateral sieve area
        
        P protein
        
        May help in plug pores in response to leakage
        
        Plastid
        
        Smooth ER
        
        Lost Ribosomes
        
        Highly Folded
        
        Mitochondria
        
        Very Few
        
        Forisomes
        
        Legumes
        
        Plug Pores
        
        Callose & callose plugs
        
        Callose deposited around terminal plasmodesmata
      - Companion Cell
        
        Branched plasmodesmata
        
        Vacuole
        
        Nucleus
        
        mitochondria
      - Plasmodesmata connections
        
        Sieve tube & companion cell from same mother cell
        
        Connected by a large quantity of plasmodesmata
        
        One pore in sieve tube area branched into many on companion cell side
  - - - Root and shoot have different arrangements
      - Key features to Monocots and Eudicots
      - Monocot
        
        Stem without pith
        
        Root with pith
      - Eudicot
        
        Stem with pith
        
        Root without pith
    - - Complexity increased
      - Stem diameter increased
      - Plant height increased
      - Led to compartmentalization
      - Selected for a woody habit
    - - Protostele, 420 MYA
        
        Earliest
        
        Solid vascular strand
        
        Phloem surrounds xylem or interspersed
      - Siphonostele, 407MYA
        
        Ring of phloem, xylem, surrounding pith
      - Eustele, 390 MYA
        
        Most complex
        
        Strands of phloem & xylem separated by parenchyma
        
        progymnosperms
    - - Protoxylem, 1st xylem to mature, usually smaller in diameter
      - Metaxylem, develops later, usually larger diameter cells
      - Exarch
        
        Protoxylem outside metaxylem
        
        Eg protosteles
        
        Lycophyte, Protostele, Most ancestral type of stem vasculature
      - Endarch
        
        Protoxylem in middle
        
        eg eusteles, atactosteles
        
        Ferns, Siphonostele, Xylem surrounded by phloem
      - Mesarch
        
        Protoxylem surrounded by metaxylem
        
        eg siphonosteles
    - - Atactostele
        
        Numerous vascular bundles scattered throughout stem
      - No Pith
      - Vascular bundles often surrounded by sclerenchyma
        
        Bundle Sheath
    - - Eustele
        
        Phloem outside xylem
        
        Bundles separated by parenchyma
      - Endarch
        
        Metaxylem outside protoxylem
      - Vascular bundle supported by sclerenchyma, bundle cap
  - - - Amount of water loss per carbon gained increased after Silurian
      - Carboniferous period greatly drained atmospheric CO2
      - Water demand is relatively high
        
        Water transport system energetically efficient (don’t starve)
        
        Minimal maintenance, cell death
        
        Transport energy minimal
        
        Water filtration close to soil access
    - - Increased competition for light selected for
        
        Taller Plants
        
        More developed tree canopies
      - Higher rates of transpiration
        
        More xylem, wider xylem, longer conduits
      - Likely evolved five times
    - - Monocotyledonae
      - Arborescent
        
        No secondary growth
    - - Lepidondrids
        
        Carboniferous, 320 MYA
        
        Vascular cambium only divided internally
      - Archaeopteris
        
        Devonian, Carboniferous
        
        Reproduced via spores
      - Extant lineages
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Euphyllophyte
    - - Complex plant development
      - Growth in girth
      - Produce secondary
        
        xylem (wood)
        
        phloem (inner bark)
        
        Ground tissue (rays)
      - Continuous circular ring growth
    - - Fusiform Initials
        
        Stem Cells
        
        Xylem and Phloem
        
        Fascicular Cambium
      - Ray Initials
        
        Stem Cells
        
        Ray Cells
        
        Interfascicular Cambium
      - Periclinal Division
        
        More Xylem and Phloem
      - Anticlinal Division
        
        Wider circle of vascular cambium
    - - Wood Block
        
        Unique for each face
        
        Longitudinal
        
        Transverse
        
        Radial
      - Initials
        
        Fusiform - longitudinal
        
        Ray - radial
    - - Sapwood: functions in water transport
      - Heartwood: functions in water transport, can no longer transport water
    - - Softwood
        
        Tracheids only
        
        Little room for fibers
        
        Gymnosperms
      - Hardwood
        
        Vessel elements’ efficiency permit space for fibers
        
        Angiosperms
    - - Periderm
        
        Phellem: cork
        
        Phellogen: cork cambium
        
        Phelloderm
      - Outer Bark
      - Inner Bark
- - - - One of the earliest features of land plants
        
        Similarities link to similar functions in extant angiosperms
        
        Bean-like shape
        
        Some evidence of air chambers
        
        Inner wall thickening
        
        Aid in desiccating sporophyte
        
        Stomata near sporophyte sporangia
        
        Aid in spore dispersal
        
        Likely not regulated
        
        May have permitted some CO2 to enter
        
        No intercellular space
        
        Lower stomatal frequency
        
        Support early role different from today
        
        Location on non-photosynthetic sporophyte tissue in early lineages
        
        Extant early lineages have stomata that only open
        
        Intercellular spaces
        
        Pseudostomata continuous with epidermis or hypodermis, no space
        
        Space filled with fluid with space made by cells pulling apart
        
        Stomatal canal, small air space
        
        Aid in diffusion of minerals and nutrients from gametophyte to sporophyte
        
        Cell Death
      - Small pore bounded by specialized epidermal cells, guard cells
      - Permit rapid gas exchange in higher plants
        
        Oxygen Out, Carbon Dioxide In
      - Control of water loss permit giants among plants
      - Flowering Plants
        
        Monocot (grasses)
        
        Dumbbell Shape
        
        Same direction as epidermal cells
        
        Eudicot
        
        Kidney-shaped
        
        Randomly Orientated
      - Functional considerations
        
        Guard cell control
        
        Active metabolic processes
        
        Increase turgor pressure
        
        Moves ions, water follows by osmosis
        
        Hypotonic to hypertonic
        
        Cytoskeleton microfibrils radially oriented
      - Photosynthetic Dependent
        
        Provides ATP for Potassium Pump
        
        Protons are pumped out
        
        Potassium moved in
        
        Ancestral condition filled with chloroplasts
        
        Independent of blue light
        
        Closure at night or under water stress
      - Water use efficiency
        
        Amount of water loss to carbon gain
        
        Close pore during water stress
        
        Reduce transpiration
        
        Maintain hydration
        
        Reduce probability of cavitation
        
        ABA responsive in seed plants
        
        Angiosperms additionally respond to VPD
  - - - Completely dependent on sporophyte
      - Egg protected by special layers of tissue
- - - - Current land plants
    - - interpolation theory
    - - Simple and Short Lived
    - - Relatively Complex and Persistent
  - - - Liverwort
      - Dominant leafy gametophyte
      - Temporary diploid sporophyte
    - - Antheridia, contain sperm
    - - Archegoniophore, contains eggs
    - - Small, temporary structure
      - Parasitic on gametophyte
      - Meiosis occurs within sporangium
        
        Sporcytes (2n), Spores (1n)
    - - Dominant leafy gametophyte
      - Temporary diploid sporophyte
    - - Contains Sperm
    - - Contains Eggs
    - - Small, temporary structure
      - Parasitic on gametophyte
      - Meiosis occurs within sporangium
        
        Sporocytes (2n)
        
        Spores (1n)
  - - - Small, Both male and female develop within spore wall
      - Microgametophytes
        
        Male, Antheridium, Sperm
      - Megagametophytes
        
        Female, Archegonium, Egg
    - - Ex. Lycophyte :
        
        Heterosporous
        
        Retained within spore walls
        
        Sperm must still swim to egg
    - - Heterosporous
      - Reduction in megasporocytes to 1 per megasporangium
      - Micro, Male
      - Mega, Female
      - Sori, Sporangia, Indusia
      - Large persistent diploid
    - - Ex. Polypod Fern
      - Independent Gametophyte
      - Independent Sporophyte
  - - - Ex. Pine
      - Microgametophyte no longer restricted to water
        
        Multicellular haploid stage
        
        Pollen Grain
        
        Immature, Mature Germinating
      - Megagametophyte protected by integuments
        
        Multicellular haploid individual
        
        Egg one of the cells (nuclei)
    - - Large dominant diploid stage
      - Gametophyte reduced to microscopic structures
      - Annual to perennial
      - Indeterminate growth
        
        Trait evolution
        
        Apomorphy
        
        derived novel trait
        
        Synapomorphy
        
        apomorphy shared by two or more taxa
        
        hypothesized to have evolved in their most recent common ancestor
        
        synonymous with homology
        
        Autapomorphy
        
        character newer than
        
        Plesiomorphy
        
        character older than
        
        Homoplasy
        
        trait has gained or lost independently in separate lineages during evolution
        
        convergent evolution leads to species independently sharing a trait that is different from the trait inferred to have been present in their common ancestor
        
        Convergence
        
        independent evolution of a similar trait in two or more taxa
        
        Apical Meristem
        
        Totipotent region
        
        Ancestral, found in charophytes
        
        Growth by mitosis
        
        Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. Then Cytokinesis
        
        Synapomorphy
        
        Charophytes mainly filamentous
        
        Bryophytes protonema
        
        Filamentous
        
        Apical Bud
        
        2D to 3D
        
        Linear growth such as filamentous algae
        
        Only divide at tip, Cytokinesis in a single plane
        
        Leafy shoot growth in three dimensions
        
        Cytokinesis in oblique planes
        
        Bifurcating sporophyte
        
        Splitting shoot tip into 2
        
        Laid foundation for multiple sporangia (polysporangiate)
        
        Large complex plants, Specialized organ systems
        
        Bryophytes are not unique mutant
        
        Current day Lycophytes
        
        Terminal sporophyte replaced
        
        Displace sporangium
        
        Side Axial, On Leaf
        
        Some tips are sterile
        
        Necessary prior to indeterminancy
        
        Polysporantiate
        
        Bifurcate branching
        
        Evolved prior to vascularization
        
        Lycophytes various branching structures
        
        Equal branching (Isotomous)
        
        Unequal branching (anisotomous)
        
        Indeterminacy
        
        Vascular plant synapomorphy
        
        Grow continuously from shoot apex
        
        Produce new organs
        
        Produce now tissue
        
        Displace terminal sporangia onto lateral branches
        
        Likely evolved after vasculature based on fossil evidence
        
        Indeterminate meristems evolved independently, and vascular plant meristems may have evolved independently
        
        Shoot apical meristem
        
        Totipotent region
        
        Continuously divides
        
        Matures in to transition tissues
        
        Ground meristem
        
        Procambium
        
        Protoderm
    - - Microgametophyte, Pollen
      - Megagametophyte
        
        Becomes nutritive tissue
        
        Protected by integuments
        
        Within an ovule
    - - Ex. Lily
      - Sporophyte dominant
      - Gametophytes microscopic
- - - - 390 MYA
      - Dichotomously branched
    - - Cooksonia sporophytes
      - 425 MYA
      - Gametophyte Complex
        
        Stomata
        
        Conducting elements
        
        Similar to extant liverworts
      - Vascular Plants
        
        Specialized conducting cells
        
        Evidence from spores 443 MYA
        
        Tracheid Fossils 415 MYA
        
        No longer restricted to wet areas