Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Scientific Research Methods - Coggle Diagram
Scientific Research Methods
The Inductive Approach
observations, measurements and experiments may suggest patterns or trends based on which, the scientist can propose a hypothesis which can then be investigated experimentally
the observation can "induce" a possible/potential/tentative explanation - a hypothesis
"bottom up" approach that draws tentative conclusions from patterns and trends identified from observations and existing hypotheses
Sir Francis Bacon
first emphasised the importance of inductive reasoning and experimentation for gaining knowledge
he is credited with developing the scientific method and his ideas influenced the scientific method
eg. if a child measuring the internal angles of many randomly drawn triangles => sum of internal angles of any triangle = 180 degrees, they would be using inductive reasoning
there are risks when drawing generalizations from specific examples, since they may not be representative of the entire class of things the generalization applies to - there is the real possibility of a wrong conclusion
eg.
1) I have seen many swans, both irl and on tv (true)
2) they were all white (true)
3) therefore, all swans are white (false)
very much associated with qualitative research
social sciences rely on methodologies such as participant observation, unstructured interviews, and focus groups...the conclusions drawn from such approaches are typically based on inductive research
sociology, anthropology
despite the possibility of ending up with wrong conclusions, inductive reasoning is extremely important in the natural sciences to generate hypothesis and theories
inductive reasoning is very much about likelihood and probability
the greater the number of observations, the greater is the likelihood that the conclusions are true
many of the greatest discoveries in scientific research started of with inductive reasoning
The Deductive Approach
general idea/theory is applied to new, specific, and as yet untested situations
deductive reasoning leads to designing experiments to test and confirm (or reject) a theory or hypothesis
since experiments tend to give quantitative results, deductive reasoning is very much associated with quantitative research methods where conclusions are supported by clear, numerical data
experiments can support a particular hypothesis but can never prove it to be true
on the other hand, experiments can falsify (refute) a hypothesis
when hypotheses are tested repeatedly in different situations and never falsified, they can lead to the development of a theory
in deductive reasoning, if the premise on which an argument is based true, the conclusion will be true
eg. all birds have a backbone - all ducks are birds - therefore, all ducks have a backbone
Mathematics is based on deduction
using a few basic axioms, an infinite range of mathematical problems can be solved
Karl Popper
argued that more value is gained from using deduction and experiments to falsify and reject hypothesis that are incorrect, rather than to try to prove theories
if experimental results do not support a theory, it does not necessarily mean it is totally wrong
it may need to be modified to accommodate the new findings
here lies the value of deductive reasoning
inductive and deductive reasoning are different but complementary - rather than mutually exclusive
scientists switch often subconsciously between the two modes of reasoning
inductive vs deductive
inductive reasoning - generates new but still tentative knowledge
Deductive reasoning - tests, verifies or falsifies knowledge
the two approaches are meant to work together
Thomas Kuhn
sees many scientists as conservatives who are reluctant to accept change and challenge well-established theories and paradigms
hence normal science is largely conservative, focusing on gathering evidence supporting well established theory
paradigm
a philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific discipline within which theories, laws, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them are formulated
if new findings show cracks in a well-established paradigm, the scientific discipline is thrown into a crisis stage
the old paradigm is now replaced with a new paradigm, often after a long drawn out intellectual battle between the followers of the new and old paradigm
Kuhn called this a paradigm shift or scientific revolution
eg.
1) the Ptolemaic system being replaced by the copernican system
2) Newtonian physics gives way to relativity and quantum physics
3) creationism giving way to evolution