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Canine Distemper Virus in the Global Dog Population - Coggle Diagram
Canine Distemper Virus in the Global Dog Population
Epidemiology
First isolated in 1905 by Carré (Martinez-Gutierrez et al, 2016)
Etiological agent- Canine morbillivirus (Loots et al, 2017)
Infections of morbillivirus are extremely infectious causing mortality and morbidity rates of up to 95% in naïve populations (Uhl et al, 2019)
Enveloped, non-segmented, single-stranded RNA virus (Siering et al, 2021)
Thought to of originated from the human measles virus, both molecularly similar (Wilkes, 2023; Uhl et al, 2019)
Found in many species from the Order Carnivora, with cross-species transmission been recorded (Uhl et al, 2019)
It mainly affects younger dogs (VMD, 2015)
CLINICAL SIGNS
Mild Infection- 3-6 days after infection (Creevy et al, 2023)
Cost-Often missed by owners (VMD,2015)
Pyrexia (VMD,2015)
Lethargy (Creevy et al, 2023)
Cost- loss of appetite (Farmer, 2023)
Acute infection
Discharge from nose and eyes (VMD,2015)
Diarrhoea (VMD,2015)
Vomiting (Farmer, 2023)
Chronic infection
Keratinises of the foot pads (hardpad) (Creevy et al, 2023)
Defected enamel in puppies (VMD,2015)
Neurological disease
Encephalomyelitis- progresses into.... (VMD,2015)
Paralysis (VMD,2015)
Seizures (Farmer, 2023)
Muscle spasms (VMD,2015)
Ataxia (VMD,2015)
Cost- dogs with this disease progressoin generally dont survive, if they do they have life long neurological clinical signs (Rendon-Marin et al, 2019)
Respiratory and gastrointestinal clinical signs complicated by secondary barcterial infections (Creevy et al, 2023)
Mortality rates found to be 75% (Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Global incidences
First occurred in South America in 1735 (Uhl et al, 2019)
Found in North American in the 1760s (Uhl et al, 2019;)
Then moved to Europe, with the virus found nearly globally at present (Martinez-Gutierrez et al, 2016)
Domesticated dogs are the reservoir host but has been found in other species
1937 South African zoo- silver jackels outbreak (Martinez-Gutierrez et al, 2016)
1942 American badger in Colorado tested positive for the virus (Martinez-Gutierrez et al, 2016)
Global CDV cases increased- both sporadic and large outbreaks recorded
Inappropriate vaccines regimes (Martella et al, 2008)
Increased illegal puppy sales (Martella et al, 2008)
CDV has been reported in all continents other than Australasia and in 43 countries (Martinez-Gutierrez et al, 2016)
Prevention
Vaccinations
Inactive CDV vaccines
Least immunity mainly used in wildlife species (Tizard, 2021a)
Modified live virus
Contains virus strains attenuated by canine cell structure (Tizard, 2021c)
Cost- can cause infection in wild animals but safe in dogs (Tizard, 2021c)
Canarypox vectored recombinant vaccine
Two CDV antigens are inserted into a canarypox vector (Tizard, 2021b)
Benefit-immunises offspring of vaccinated mothers 4 weeks faster than the MLV vaccine (Tizard, 2021b)
Attenuated measels vaccines
Given to puppies Intramuscularly 6-12 weeks of age (Tizard, 2021a)
Benefit- gives immunity even with high levels of maternal CDV antibodies (Creevy et al, 2023)
Cost- must still be followeed by two MLV CDV vaccines (Creevy et al, 2023)
Cost- passive maternal immunity may prevent immunisation (Martella et al, 2008)
To overcome this puppies should be vaccinated at 6-8 weeks and again 2-4 weeks after (Martella et al, 2008)
Cost- outbreaks have been seen in vaccinated populations, potentially due to new strains (Simon-Martínez et al, 2008)
Very sensitive to UV radiation, detergents and heat (Loots et al, 2017)
India and Africa held vaccinations campaigns in dog populations, particularly near wildlife (Prager et al, 2012)
UK & American 'core' vaccine for dogs (VMD, 2015; Tizard, 2021a)
50 licenced vaccines, only one of which is specific for CDV, in America (Tizard, 2021a)
Usually combined with canine parvovirus and others (Tizard, 2021a)
77.7% of dogs reffered in cold seasons (Sarchah et al, 2022)
50% of dogs from a shelter had infections (Sarchahi et al, 2022
Disinfecting between animals will reduce disease (Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Quaranting infected animals (Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Cost- isolation rooms in vet practices may lack human interaction, nd air flow (Sykes et al, 2014)
Sensitive to lipid solvents such as ether and most disinfectants (Creevy et al, 2023)
Cost-Phenols and quaternary ammonium compounds should be added to vet and kennel cleaning routines (Creevy et al, 2023)
Shown to survive in the evnironment for longer in colder temperatures (Wilkes, 2023)
71.43% of dogs diagnosed with CDV occurred during the cold seasons (Mousafarkhani et al, 2023)
Cost- Stray dogs arent vaccincated and it is strategically challenging to vaccinat them (Dalla-Villa et al, 2010)
Foxes are CDV reservoirs for dogs
Cost- 36.8% seroprevelence in European foxes (Frölich et al, 2000)
Cost- their inquisitive and roaming nature contributes to the spread of disease (Geiselherdt et al, 2022)
Prevent unvaccinated dogs in areas with foxes
Disinfectants shown to reduce infections of CDV by 99.9% after 10 minutes (Tanner, 2021)
70% ethanol solutions
Cost-Contec £85 for 6 liters (Aston Pharma, not dated)
100 ppm sodium hypochlorite
Benefit-household bleach easily accessable
Cost- corrosive and irritable to skin for both dogs and humans (Girotti, 2015)
0.05% quaternary ammonium chloride
Cost- if it enters wayer systmes its toxic to marine life causing demal or reproductive disease (Arnold et al, 2023)
Diagnosis
Ante-mortem diagnosis is essential due to the high infectious rate of the disease (Loots et al, 2017)
Initial diagnosis is attained by assessing the clinical signs expressed (Loots et al, 2017)
Cost- these signs can be mistaken for other common diseases such as toxoplasmosis (Loots et al, 2017)
RT-PCR test
Benefit- does not need live virus samples (Frisk et al, 1999)
Benefit- used in both ante and post mortem samples (Frisk et al, 1999))
Benefit- uses whole blood, serum or cerebrospinal fluid (Frist et al, 1999)
Cost-£57 to complete (SRUC, 2015)
Cost- technically challenging process needing to be done in a lab (Cho et al, 2005)
Cost- 4-8 hours for diagnosis (Cho et al, 2005)
Cost- may not distinguish between infection and vaccine virus (Creevy et al, 2023)
RT-LAMP test
Uses a blood sample (Cho et al, 2005)
Benefit- 100% sensitivity and 93.3% specificity (Wostenbery et al, 2018)
Benefit- simple to use with little training (Karki et al, 2023)
Benefit- 2 hours for diagnosis (Cho et al, 2005)
Lateral flow assays
Benefit-Test either conjunctival or navel swabs (Pranitha et al, 2022)
Benefit- Quick diagnosis (Pranitha et al, 2022)
Benefit- Can be done in field (Pranitha et al, 2022)
Sensitivity- 97.96% Specificity- 98.04% (Rapidlabs, n.d.)
Tests for mAb against the nucleocapsid protein of CDV (Karki et al, 2023)
ELISA
Carried out on cerebrospinal fluid (Creevy et al, 2023)
Benefit- less likely to get false positives due to antibodies from vaccinations rather than natural disease (Creevy et al, 2023)
Benefit-Detects antibodies within 6 days of initial infection (Barben et al, 1999)
Cost- can only detet antibodies, cant distingution between vaccine and natral infection antibodies (Dorji et al, 2020)
Treatment
There is no specific medicine for therapeutic treatment (VMD, 2015)
Actute disease
Treatment is mostly unsuccesful (Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Fluid therapy (Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Antibiotics to stop other infections (Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Corticosteroids (Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Neuroloogical disease
Often clinical signs are irreversible even with treatment Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Cost- euthinasia most likely outcome (Sarchahi et al, 2022)
Flavonoids and phenolic acids show antiviral action (Loots et al, 2017)
Transmission
Lives between 20- 180 minutes in tissues/ room temperature (Loots et al, 2017)
Shed in respiratory and ocular fluids (Williams et al, 2008)
Foxes are a potential wildlife reservoir, so contact with these may cause infect (VMD, 2015)
Unstable in the environment (VMD, 2015)
Main route of infection is by direct contact with secretions from infected animals (VMD, 2015)
Has been seen to shed for several months after infection (VMD, 2015)
Most vaccines given with other disease vaccinations as part of a puppy vaccination plan (RVC, 2022)
Canixin DHPPi/L
Given at 8 weeks of age (DEFRA, 2021)
Immunity from three weeks(DEFRA, 2021)
Immunisation lasts 1 year (DEFRA, 2021)
Contains live attenuated CDV strain Lederle (DEFRA, 2021)
1ml per does infected subcutaneously (DEFRA, 2021)
Cost- presence of maternal anti-bodies may reduce immunity, so a third dose is at 15 weeks (DEFRA, 2021)
Second vaccine 3-4 weeks later (DEFRA, 2021)
Canigen DHP
Benefit- single dose can be administered from 10 weeks (DEFRA, 2022)
Immunity from 1 week (DEFRA, 2022)
Benefit- Immunisation lasts 3 years (DEFRA, 2022)
Contains CDV strain Onderstepoort (DEFRA,2022)
Benefit- has been proven to work with maternal antibodies (DEFRA, 2022)
1ml subcutaneous per dose (DEFRA, 2022)
Benefit- can be administered to pregnant bitches as long as they have previuosly had the vaccine (DEFRA, 2022)
Benefit- first dose can be given at 6 weeks. Cost- another dose is needed 2-4 weeks later (DEFRA, 2022)
Vanguard 7
First administered from 7 weeks (DEFRA, 2023)
Second dose at leat 14 days later at 10 weeks of age (DEFRA, 2023)
Benefit- immunity from 2 weeks (DEFRA, 2023)
Contains live attenuated CDV strain N-CDV (DEFRA, 2023)
Immunisation lasts at least a year (DEFRA, 2023)
1ml dose administered subcutaneously (DEFRA, 2023)
Cost- cannot be given to pregant bitches (DEFRA, 2023)
Cost- Primary vaccinations cost £66.70 for both sets of vaccinations (RVC, 2022)
Cost- Booster vaccinations cost £49.90 per dose (RVC, 2022)