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RESEARCH METHODS - Coggle Diagram
RESEARCH METHODS
OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES
covert observation: participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent - removes demand characteristics - increases internal validity - ethically unacceptable
overt: participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their consent - more ethically acceptable
controlled observation: watching and recording behaviour within a structures environment, i.e one where variables are managed - may not be applicable to real life - replication easier due to control of variables
participant observation: the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour theyre watching and recording - increased insight - increases external validity - can lose objectivity
naturalistic observation: watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur - high external validity as findings can be generalised to every day life - lack of replication due to lack of control over the research situation - uncontrolled confounding or extraneous variables
non-participant observation: the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour theyre watching and recording - may not get the valuable insight of participant observations
OBSERVATIONAL DESIGN
event sampling ; a target behaviour or event is established then the researcher records this every time it occurs
behavioural categories ; when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation) to produce a structured record of what a researcher sees - there should be no need for inferences to be made
- observable
- measurable
- self evident
-exclusive
time sampling ; a target individual or group is first established, the the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame e.g every 60 seconds
structured vs unstructured observation
UNSTRUCTURED
- write down everything they see
- tend to produce qualitative data, which may be more difficult to record and analyse
- greater risk of observer bias as no behavioural categories to record into
- more richness and depth of information recorded
STRUCTURED
- simplify the target behaviours that will become the main focus of the investigation using behavioural categories
- recording of data easier and more systematic
- data produced is likely to be quantitative
inter-observer reliability - it is recommended that researchers do not conduct observational studies alone as single observers may miss important details or may only notice events that confirm their opinions or hypothesis.
data from different observers is compared to check for consistency and reliability - this is called inter observer reliability
SELF REPORT TECHNIQUES
a self report technique is any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feeling, behaviours or experiences related to a given topic
QUESTIONNAIRES
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open - doesn't have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer however they wish - tend to produce qualitative data that contains a wide range of responses but may be difficult to analyse
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closed - fixed number of responses, tend to produce quantitative data, which is usually easy to analyse but may lack the depth and detail associated with open questions
INTERVIEWS
semi-structured interviews - a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are free to ask follow up questions based on pervious answers
unstructured interviews - no set questions, works a lot like a conversation with a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed - more flexibility eliciting unexpected information - increased risk of researcher bias, drawing firm conclusions may be difficult due to complexity of analysis
structured interviews - made up of pre-determined sets of questions that are asked in a fixed order - basically like a questionnaire but conducted in real time - straight forward to replicate due to their standardised format - reduces differences between interviews - limits richness and depth of data collected
LIMITATIONS: may not always be truthful due to social desirability bias, a demand characteristic. may produce a response bias where respondents tend to respond in a similar way. acquiescence bias - the tendency to agree with items regardless of the content of the question
STRENGTHS: cost effective, can gather large amounts of data quickly because they can be easily distributed to a large amount of people. can be completed without the researcher being present which reduces the effort involved. data is usually straightforward to analyse especially if closed questions are used. statistical analysis and comparisons between groups of people can be made using graphs and charts
SELF REPORT DESIGN
designing interviews - most interviews involve an interview schedule, which is the list of questions that the interviewer intends to cover. this should be standardised to reduce the effect of interviewer bias.
the interviewer will take notes, or alternatively the interview may be recorded and analysed later.
- clinical setting
- quiet room to increase the likelihood of the interviewee opening up
- ethical issues such as confidentiality and informed consent must be reminded
RATING SCALES - works in a similar way to a likert scale but gets respondents to identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic
FIXED-CHOICE OPTION - includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them
LIKERT SCALE - respondents indicate their agreement or otherwise with a statement using a scale of usually 5 points. the scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree
WRITING GOOD QUESTIONS
EMOTIVE LANGUAGE AND LEADING QUESTIONS - sometimes a researchers attitude towards a particular topic is clear from the way in which the question is phrased. neutral alternatives should be used.
leading questions guide the participant towards a particular answer e.g is it not obvious that student fees should be abolished?
DOUBLE BARRELLED QUESTIONS AND DOUBLE NEGATIVES-
a double barrelled question contains two questions in one and respondents may agree with one half of the question but not the other.
questions with double negatives can be difficult for respondents to decipher
OVERUSE OF JARGON - jargon refers to technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field or area
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CORRELATIONS
positive correlation - as one co variable increases do does the other e.g number of people in a room and noise
negative correlation - as one co-variable increases the other decreases e.g number of people in a room and personal space
co-variables - the variables investigated within a correlation, e,g height and weight. they are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause and effect relationship
zero correlation - when there is no relationship between the co-variables. e.g number of people in a room in manchester and the total daily rainfall in peru
correlation - a mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between 2 variables called co variables
STRENGTHS : provide a precise and quantifiable measure of how 2 variables are related.
used as a starting point to assess possible patterns between variables before researchers commit to an experimental study
quick and economical to carry out
no need for a controlled environment and no manipulation of variables is required
secondary data can be used which means correlations are less time consuming than experiments
LIMITATIONS : studies tell us how variables are related but not why.
cannot demonstrate cause and effect between variables and therefore we cannot tell which variable is causing the other variable to change
another untested variable could be causing the relationship between the 2 co-variables we are interested in - an INTERVENING VARIABLE
correlations can be misused or misinterpreted
TYPES OF DATA
PRIMARY DATA: data that has been obtained first hand by a researcher for the purposes of a research project. in psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self report or observation - authentic data, more time an effort, more planning, rescources and preparation
SECONDARY DATA: information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. in psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics - inexpensive - minimal effort - substantial variation in quality - outdated - challenges validity
QUANTITATIVE: data that can be counted, usually given as numbers - simple to analyse - comparisons easily drawn - objective - less open to bias - fails to represent real life as narrower in detail
META-ANALYSIS: the process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic. the aim is to produce an overall statistical conclusion (the effect size) based on a range of studies. a meta analysis should not be confused with a review where a number of studies are discussed - larger more varied sample, may choose to leave out studies with negative results - conclusions biased
QUALITATIVE DATA: data that is expressed in words and no-numerical (although it can be converted into numbers for purposes of analysis) more richness and depth than quantitative - greater external validity due to greater insight - difficult to analyse - patterns and comparisons may be hard to identify - hard to statistically summarise - subject to bias due to subjective interpretations
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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
HYPOTHESIS: a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. stated at the outset of the study
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AIM: a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study
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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: an aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the dependent variable can be measured
VARIABLES: any thing that can vary or change within an investigation. variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing results in changes to another
DEPENDENT VARIABLE: the variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV
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LEVELS OF THE IV
- in order to test the effect of the IV we need different experimental conditions. however many conditions there are, is how many levels of IV you have
RESEARCH ISSUES
CONFOUNDING VARIABLES: a type of EV but a key feature is that a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV. therefore we can't tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES: any variable other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable if it is not controlled. EVS are nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS: any cue from the researcher or research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. this may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation
INVESTIGATOR EFFECTS: any effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious and unconscious) on the research outcome of the DV. this may include everything from the design of the study, selection of, interaction with, participants during the research process
RANDOMISATION: the use of chance methods to control the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions
STANDARDISATION: using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
experimental design - the different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
independent groups design - where participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition ------ less economical as each participants contributes a single result only ---- twice as many participants needed than if you use repeated measures design ---- participant variables ---- order effects aren't a problem ---- participants are less likely to guess the aim
repeated measures - all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment ------ order effects are an issue - counterbalancing deals with this -------- boredom or fatigue ------order acts as a confounding variable -------- participants can work out the aims of the study - demand characteristic --------- however participant variables are controlled (therefore higher validity) and fewer participants are needed
matched pairs design - pairs of participants are first matched on some variables that may affect the DV. then one member of the pair is assigned to one condition and the other to the other. ------ participants only take part in a signle condition so order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem.---------- participants can never be matched exactly ------- time consuming and expensive ----- less economical
random allocation - an attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
counter balancing - an attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design. half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order
TYPES OF EXPERIMENT
FIELD EXPERIMENT: an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
+higher mundane realism
+thus behaviour that is more valid and authentic
+if participants are unaware they are being studied high external validity
-loss of control of CVs and EVs
-precise replication not possible
-ethical issues - if participants are unaware theyre being studied they cannot consent which is an invasion of privacy
QUASI-EXPERIMENTS: have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people e.g age or gender.
it simply exists, and unlike a natural experiment, the independent variable cannot be changed. e.g if anxiety levels of phobic and non phobic patients were compared, the IV of having a phobia would not have come about through any experimental manipulation
+controlled conditions and controlled variables
+replication
-confounding variables due to lack of random allocation
-IV isn't deliberately changed by the researcher and therefore we cannot claim that the IV has caused any observed change
LAB EXPERIMENT: an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
+high control over confounding and extraneous variables thus more certain about demonstrating cause and effect meaning higher internal validity
+replication
-lack generalisability as the lab experiment is artificial and not like everyday life so participants may act in an unusual way (demand characteristics, low external validity)
-may not represent every day life = low mundane realism
NATURAL EXPERIMENT: an experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher hadn't of been there. the researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on
+provides opportunities for research that may not have been undertaken for practical or ethical reasons, such as rutters romanian orphans study.
+high external validity as they involve real life problems and issues as they happen such as the effect of a natural disaster on stress levels
-rare - may limit generalisability
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SAMPLING
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BIAS: in the context of sampling, when certain groups are over or under represented within the sample selected. e.g too many younger people or too many people in one ethnic group. this limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population
SAMPLE: a group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population
GENERALISATION: the extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is possible if the sample of participants is representative of the target population
POPULATON; a group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn