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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY STUDIES (STS), inductive reasoning is not…

- - - - Deduction
        
        A reasoning process from which necessary conclusions are drawn from a set of premises
        
        Provided the initial premises are true, a deduced conclusion is necessarily true.
        
        Deduction moves from general statements to specific conclusions
      - How Inductivism works in science
        
        Relevant question of induction
        
        How much observation do i have to make before i can establish a pattern?
        
        How much variation should there be in these observations?
        
        Problems with Inductivism
        
        Data underdetermines theory
    - - Falsification in Science
        
        Falsification aims to justify general statements without relying on induction
        
        The central claim of falsification is that it can be used to definitely eliminate generalizations.
        
        In contrast with Inductivism, Falsification proposes:
        
        How scientists reach generalizations is unimportant
        
        what is important is the capacity for a generalization to be falsified
        
        Scientific theories are only those theories that are falsifiable, capable of making predictions that can be tested and falsified.
        
        Scientific work consists of rigorously testing and trying to falsify theories, rather than collecting observations to support some induction.
    - - Pre- paradigmaic science
        
        Characterized by lack of consensus
        
        There are competing schools of thought with variable views on major problems in the field.
        
        May differ on how solutions should be sought
        
        May differ on what phenomena or data constitutes the field
      - Paradigm - Normal Science
        
        Normal Science
        
        Characterized by consensus around a paradigm
        
        Takes pace when one school of thought becomes dominant by providing some solutions to some notable problems
        
        A paradigm may provide a theoretical framework, but also methods and practices to identify and solve problems
        
        Puzzle solving in normal science
        
        Scientific work is akin to puzzle solving
        
        Puzzle solving attempts might fail, but this failure weighs upon scientists, not the theory.
        
        Knowledge accumulates
      - Anomalies & Crisis
        
        Characterized by questioning of the paradigm
        
        Unsolved puzzles accumulate or persist such that doubt about whether the paradigm is capable of solving the puzzle develops.
      - Revolution
        
        Characterized by paradigm change
        
        The outcome of a revolution- the choice between alternative successor paradigms is established by a set of values.
- - - - Examples of Skepticism
        
        Climate change skepticism, Skepticism of parapsychological phenomena, and skepticism of faith teachings.
- - - - Science communication focuses on training people to communicate scientific messages effectively
  - - - Emphasis on enhancing scientific literacy through science comm, and education
- - - - In DD you should have CS - In DD major technical decision and science should not be left to the "experts" alone.
      - CS helps to build DD - The practice of CS creates a more inclusive and less elitist science, and democracy
    - - Trust & Accountability - Increase accountability of decision makers
      - It produces better knowledge - Produces better sci and tech
      - For public interests - better reflect public interests
      - Part of deliberative democracy - civic sciences as the democratization of sci
    - - Participation
      - Representation
      - Democratization
    - - Deliberative Democracy
      - Public engagement mechanisms
      - Citizen juries
      - Tasks forces
      - Town meetings
      - Consensus conferences
      - Engagement and involved is not perfect, nor is it silver bullet
    - - Key features of effective participation. participants are/have:
        
        Representative of the population
        
        Independent
        
        Involved early in the decision making process
        
        Have real influence on the outcome of the process
        
        Are engaged in a transprent prrocess
        
        Have access to resources
        
        Have defined tasks
        
        Engaged in structured decision making
- - - - Until the late 1950s, "gender" was used only in grammar - "psychological sex" and biological determinism: "anatomy is destiny".
      - Around 1955, studies of intersex individuals by John Money and Robert Stoller : "gender roles" and "gender identity" are distinct from "biological sex"
      - 1960s, second-wave feminism
        
        sex-gender distinction to oppose biological determinism: sex is biologically determined, but gender is socially constructed
        
        traditional gender is a socio-cultural system created to support and maintain patriarchy
    - - The Sex/ Gender/ Sexuality Complex
        
        21st century: LGBTQ+ rights movement
        
        Limitations of the biology- society dichotomy and body- min dualism
        
        Biosocial approach
        
        sex/gender/sexuality as a biosocial complex
      - What's the Matter with Traditional Gender?
        
        Dualism: polarization of human variability into a sexual binary
        
        Hierarchy: inferiorization and subordination of women to men, and androcentrism
    - - 1989, Kimberly Williams Crenshaw coined "intersectionality" to describe the experience of oppression of black American women
      - Individuals live at the intersection of multiple axes of inequality: gender, race, class, age, ability, etc
      - Different axes of inequality interact and interact in non linear ways
- - - - let nature be nature
      - do not interfere
      - reduce human impact on earth
      - Protect earth, nature, and by extension humanity
      - we don't understand complexity
  - - - Industrial Revolution, First atomic bomb, Mid- 20th century acceleration
        
        Controversy: unofficial unit of geologic time
    - - Golden spike defines a new geological era.
      - Nuclear trace in Crawford lake could be evidence of spike
    - - Anthropocene as a natural transition resulting from a very recent innovation: the evolution of tool-using intelligence and the consequent rise of technological civilization. "(Allenby)
    - - Focusing exclusively on climate change is equivalent to treating symptoms rather than attacking disease.
      - The point is not that climate change should not be a concern or that its effects do not have to be managed. Rather, the climate change and geoengineering discussions have so far been a way to evade knowledge and responsibility, not to extend them". (Allenby, 2015).
      - even if we were to reduce the carbon content off the atmosphere to ore- industralization levels, we wouldn't be restoring the planet to its industrial state. complex adaptive systems do not have a default setting to which they can revert. we can't de-Anthropocene the planet" (Allenby, 2015)
- - - - the appropriation of the animal (the native) by the human (the colonist).
      - colonialism legacy of developing countries the familiarization of man (the colonist) and the animal (the native)
      - and the utilization of the animal (the native) by the human (the colonist).
  - - - Repeatedly ignoring the recommendations of its own Famine Commissions that emphasized the need to develop industries to provide employment for peasants uprooted from the land, the state authorities acted on peripheral recommendations such as the need for the duffision and application of a scientific knowledge of agriculture in India, and the provision of a class of officers who shall possess such knowledge and be in a position to apply it effectively. (Report of the Famine Commission 1880: 139)" (Baber 2001)