Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Screenshot 2024-03-27 at 6.44.18 PM - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Exclude social factors from science.
      - Just because it's prevalent doesn't mean it's good
  - - - As it assumes what ?
        
        People learning something ->
        
        Attitudes Change ->
        
        People change behaviour
    - - Science Communication
        
        More
        
        Better
      - Scientific Literacy
        
        Via sci ed
        
        More understanding = more support / less critique
        
        Via Sci comm
    - - Sheep farmers' response to Chernobyl-era scientific advice.
    - - Yearly / Sismondo
        
        Interested public may have expertise conflicting with scientific views.
        
        Scientific knowledge has implicit norms, which the public may reject
        
        Public trust in science is shaped by its institutions and scientists.
      - Wynne
        
        Scientists overlooked farmers' knowledge on sheep habits and hillside productivity.
        
        Scientists made assumptions contradicting farmers' expertise
        
        Farmers distrusted government and scientists for downplaying risks.
  - - - The assumption that the public wouldn't understand.
      - Angers the public, making them feel insulted or belittled.
    - - Covid-19
      - Information on climate change
- - - - Science conducted by trained professionals in labs.
      - Scientists are geniuses
      - Hypothesize, Predict, Test, Revise
    - - But what is technology in science? :
        
        Applied Science
    - - Some aspects evolve toward true knowledge
      - Science accumulates facts and progresses over time
  - - - Kuhn redefined science history by prioritizing research activities over formalism
    - - Kuhn proposed that periods of normal science are punctuated by revolutions
    - - Kuhn posits that science offers partial truths accepted by its adherents, not absolute ones
    - - Kuhn's incommensurability ideas stem from positivism
      - Kuhn highlights indoctrination, implying paradigms shape observations
    - - Observation, according to Kuhn, is always influenced by concepts and ideas
    - - Theory-dependent observation shifts during scientific revolutions, as per Kuhn.
    - - Kuhn's incommensurability claims stem from his historian's struggle
    - - Trading Zones
        
        Specialties intersect in trading zones, enabling valuable goods transfer
        
        In a trading zone, practices interact with simplified languages, without assimilation
        
        Collaborations in Trading Zones
        
        Objects bridge boundaries, maintaining identities across contexts.
        
        Trading zone collaborations thrive despite differing cultures and practices.
      - Boundary Objects
        
        Standardized Records as Boundary Objects
        
        These objects enable coordination of actions without extensive translation.
        
        Standardized records acted as crucial boundary objects, bridging diverse social realms.
        
        Variety of Boundary Objects
        
        Boundary objects imply coordination across social boundaries despite differences.
        
        The concept of boundary objects has been applied in various ways.
  - - - Three General Approaches to Answering This
        Question in the 20th Century
        
        Paradigmatic Science
        
        Normal Science
        
        The Concept of Normal Science
        
        Normal science shares past achievements, beliefs, and problem-solving methods.
        
        Paradigms are often taught and learned implicitly through social processes.
        
        Consensus forms around a "paradigm" when one school dominates.
        
        A paradigm offers not only a theoretical framework but also methods and practices for identifying and solving problems.
        
        Determines the questions we ask
        
        Theory-dependent observations
        
        Problem Solving In Normal Science
        
        Knowledge accumulates
        
        Searching for exoplanets
        
        Measuring the speed of light
        
        Scientists are motivated by solving puzzles, not creating new theories.
        
        Failed attempts at puzzle-solving weigh on the scientist, not the theory itself.
        
        Scientific work is akin to “puzzle solving”
        
        The paradigm is accepted without questioning or testing.
        
        Similar to solving a crossword puzzle or Sudoku
        
        Operating within the rules of a paradigm without violating them.
        
        Kuhn: Science as a Social Community
        
        After Kuhn
        
        Emphasis on descriptive philosophy of science
        
        Scholars agree: no universal "good science" or single "scientific method."
        
        Incommensurability and paradigms widely questioned
        
        Relevance of broader society on scientific knowledge
        
        2 more items...
        
        The role of values in scientific decisions is significant.
        
        Specialties operate within distinct paradigms yet communicate effectively.
        
        Science isn't fully unified; change is gradual, enabling cross-paradigm comparisons.
        
        Paradigm: a comprehensive framework.
        
        Indoctrination and theory-dependent observation
        
        Paradigmatic differences influence perception and interpretation.
        
        Cognitive and social aspects of science are interconnected.
        
        Scientific criteria vary by scientific community, rather than being universal.
        
        External factors influence scientific decision-making.
        
        Scientific criteria vary by scientific community and are not universal.
        
        What does this all mean? So What? Why does
        it matter?
        
        Paradigms shape our view of scientific accumulation.
        
        History often assesses science based on current standards, overlooking deviations.
        
        Science does not accumulate in a meaningful sense.
        
        Incommensurability
        
        Paradigms lack a common language or measure
        
        Cannot be translated
        
        Cannot be compared.
        
        The way the world is perceived can change when paradigms change.
        
        Phenomena and data significance vary with the prevailing paradigm.
        
        Observation is influenced by underlying theories or frameworks.
        
        Kuhn argues that paradigms offer a comprehensive conceptual framework for examining and interpreting the world.
        
        The meanings of terms can shift when paradigms change.
        
        Meaning of terms is defined within a specific framework.
        
        The selection of alternative successor paradigms following a revolution is influenced by a set of values.
        
        A paradigm can also influence values within a scientific context.
        
        These values may sometimes be in conflict with each other.
        
        Key criteria for evaluating theories
        
        scope, accuracy, predictiveness, consistency, and fruitfulness.
        
        Characterized by paradigm change
        
        Crisis resolution occurs when consensus agrees the relevant problems are solved.
        
        Past paradigm achievements may or may not carry into subsequent paradigms.
        
        Anomalies & Crisis
        
        Consensus remains on the key problems needing resolution.
        
        Social factors influence crisis timing by prioritizing specific issues.
        
        Unsolved puzzles accumulate as "anomalies," castes doubt on the paradigm's efficacy.
        
        Characterized by questioning of the paradigm
        
        Modifications
        
        Pre-paradigmatic science
        
        Various schools of thought compete with differing views on significant problems within the field.
        
        May differ on the definition of phenomena or data within the field.
        
        May differ on approaches to seeking solutions.
        
        Marked by a absence of agreement.
        
        Kuhn diverges from the normative stance of his predecessors.
        
        Kuhn criticizes normative philosophy for not aligning with scientific practices.
        
        Kuhn identifies distinct periods in science with characteristic practices.
        
        Falsification
        
        Falsification in science can lead to attribution ambiguity with complex predictions.
        
        Falsification in Science
        
        Science advances by replacing weaker theories with stronger ones
        
        Falsification doesn't directly validate generalizations.
        
        Scientific knowledge is always subject to testing and potential disproof.
        
        What does this propose?
        
        Science tests theories via falsification, not just observation for induction.
        
        What matters is the potential for a generalization to be falsified
        
        Science relies on falsifiable theories, unlike non-scientific domains such as astrology.
        
        Strong scientific theories are highly falsifiable, making testable predictions.
        
        How scientists arrive at generalizations is irrelevant.
        
        This enables an explanation of how scientific knowledge is formed.
        
        Certainty in discarding unjustified generalizations.
        
        Falsification decisively eliminates generalizations.
        
        Falsification validates general statements without relying on induction.
        
        Inductivism
        
        Problems of Inductivisim
        
        Problem of induction: Can an inductive conclusion be justified?
        
        In probabilistic induction, when is the conclusion justified?
        
        Data underdetermines theory
        
        How Inductivism Works in Science
        
        In science, generalizations from data, measurements, and observations are key.
        
        Inductivism emphasizes science's unique reliability in making inductions.
        
        Conclusion broadens truth conditions beyond initial statements.
        
        Inductive reasoning lacks deductive validity.
        
        Induction: specific to general conclusions.
- - - - Communication
      - Transparency and Openness
      - Producibility
      - Peer Assessment
      - Ethical Conduct
      - Thinking Critically
  - - - Science philosophy reveals how scientific society interactions influence scientific reality.
        
        e.g Evolutionary Biology
  - - - Examine on multiple levels (micro, meso, macro).
- - - - The Situation
        
        Not experienced in membrane isolation methods, but learning
        
        Not experienced in spectroscopy, but learning
        
        Results will contribute to evidence for one of three models.
        
        The lab is known for favouring one of the models
  - - - Challenge strength depends on supporting evidence
    - - Instruments challenged for accuracy in controversial results.
    - - Core scientists end controversy by pulling rank
    - - Researchers find closure in familiar ideas
    - - Kuhn: Research disregarded if it doesn't fit paradigm
  - - - Claims questioned due to lack of evidence or reasoning.
      - Aims to correct belief errors caused by biases, fraud and deception
    - - "Scientific skepticism" relies on published scientific findings.
      - Skeptics Society investigates paranormal claim
      - Founded in 1992 by Michael Shermer.
  - - - "Accuracy is subjective amid 'vagueness"
      - "subjective validation,"
      - "cold reading,' 'lucky hits,' and 'tricks'."
    - - Role of Rhetoric in Convincing
        
        Scientists use rhetoric to persuade
      - Main Line of Communication in Science
        
        Published papers persuade audiences of certain facts.
      - Rhetorical Task in Controversy
        
        In controversy, persuade of position legitimacy, opponent illegitimacy.
      - Legitimization and Delegitimization
        
        Authors legitimize through scientific behavior norms.
      - Replication and Faults in Experiments
        
        Replicated experiments prone to faults, poor results
    - - Importance of the Idea of Science
        
        Science itself stands as one of the most vital rhetorical resources.
  - - - Kuhn challenges linear progress in science, highlighting gains and loses
      - Kuhn questions constant development in science.
        
        Argued, scientific knowledge involves both declines and breakthroughs.
    - - Predictable device without internal knowledge.
    - - STS takes symmetrical approach to dispel black-boxed artifacts
    - - Black-boxed facts obscure their teleological history.
    - - Investigators focus on contentious historical stages.
  - - - Symmetrical approach validates diverse perspectives.
      - STS restores rationality in disputes, especially when overlooked.
    - - Theoretical challenges resolved in practice, fostering agreements
      - Minority perspectives sidelined; extreme views marginalized.
    - - Theoretical challenges are often overcome in practice, leading to agreement.
      - Disagreements managed within boundaries
  - - - Experimenters' regress challenges experimentation's status.
    - - Experimenters’ regress becomes prominent during disputes.
    - - Experimenters’ regress is a theoretical issue." but can manifest as a visible issue
    - - Most experimental results are uncontroversial despite challenging them.
      - If an experimental system is well established or well constructed
  - - - Technology questions engage experts and non-experts.
    - - Technical issues intertwined with broader dimensions.
  - - - Some scientists see controversy studies as hostile
      - Meaning-Making in Controversy Studies
        
        Controversy studies reveal persuasion tactics
        
        They illustrate knowledge construction through bootstrapping.
    - - Controversy studies may not always favor science.
    - - Effective controversy studies link evidence to culture.
    - - STS researchers understand cases and debate resolution
    - - In STS, controversy studies understand debate closure
    - - Allan Franklin warns against blind trust in experimental results
  - - - Controversy studies uncover bias toward non-neutrality
    - - Study results become part of controversy, adopted by underdogs or one side
    - - Haraway advocates 'embodied objectivity', blending objectivity with self-awareness.
      - Embodied objectivity' offers responsive, partial real-world knowledge
    - - STS researcher's view on controversy differs from participants.
      - Symmetrical approach to knowledge differs from participant views.
    - - STS underpins nuanced political stances, with diverse commitments.
    - - Testing Scientific Theories
        
        The Duhem-Quine thesis: Testing a theory involves an entire web of beliefs
        
        In principle, any scientific theory can persist despite contradictory evidence.
    - - Information Access in Controversy
        
        STS researchers access more information during controversy
      - Participants' Claims in Controversy
        
        During controversy, participants claim stakes, strategies, weaknesses
- - - - Successful participation requires representation, independence, influence, and structure.
      - Public input enhances technical decision quality.
    - - Deliberative democracy builds trust and legitimizes decisions.
      - Effective dialogues enhance mutual understanding among parties.
  - - - Addressing Complex Societal Challenges
      - improving Decision-Making Processes
      - Enhancing Public Participation:
    - - Trust & Accountability
        
        Works to build trust
        
        Restoring public trust in S&T
        
        Legitimate decision b/c it involves publics
      - It produces better knowledge
        
        Produces better sci and tech, more suitable
        
        Civic science harnesses diverse knowledge for effective solutions to environmental complexity.
        
        More options (weapons disposal)
      - For public interests
        
        Better reflect public interests
        
        Values get build into tech & knowledge
      - Part of democratic societies
        
        Civic science is part of democratizing science, where people have the right to deliberate.
    - - Representation
      - Democratization
      - Participation
  - - - Deliberative democracy encourages public participation through dialogue.
      - Public involvement improves science and technology decision-making.
    - - Tasks Forces
      - Town meetings
      - Citizen juries
    - - Independent
      - Early involvement in decision-making processes.
      - Representative of the population
      - Possess genuine influence over the process outcome.
      - Engaged in structured decision-making processes.
  - - - Role of Resources
      - Communities and Collaborations
      - Entry barriers (knowledge, profession, institutions)
  - - - Political theory must define the essence and legitimate authority of expertise.
      - Scientific and technical knowledge can lack democratic oversight.
    - - Laypersons and experts influence technical decisions.
      - Assessing expertise across domains enhances political legitimacy.
    - - Narrow decision focus overlooks diverse problem origins and cultural perspectives on knowledge.
      - Expertise distinctions are unclear, with differing consensus on technical and moral issues.
    - - Civic epistemologies shape knowledge and expertise.
      - Local cultures devise unique, legitimate responses to the political issue of expertise.
    - - Expertise and power are interconnected outcomes, not separate processes.
      - Consider local values in science and technology improvement efforts.
    - - Martin (2006) identifies four science visions: technocratic, pluralistic, participatory, democratic.
  - - - Scientific knowledge and successful technologies are shaped by socialization.
    - - Support citizen science with scientific resources for interested groups.
      - Actor-network theory integrates humans and non-humans for democratic technoscience.
    - - Science shops conduct research based on community needs.
      - Grassroots and citizen science tackle risks with efficient research methods.
- - - - Physical traits classify individuals as male, female, or intersex
    - - Gender includes self-identity, behaviors, roles, cultural values
    - - 1955, John Money and Robert Stoller studied intersex individuals.
        
        "Gender roles" and "gender identity" are distinct from "biological sex."
      - Late 1950s,
        
        "Gender" was initially used only in grammar.
        
        Psychological sex and biological determinism:
        
        "anatomy is destiny."
      - 1960s, Second-Wave Feminism
        
        Traditional gender is a socio-cultural system designed to uphold patriarchy.
        
        Sex biological, gender socially constructed, opposing determinism
  - - - the categorization of human variability into a binary sexual framework.
    - - Inferiorization and subordination of women to men, along with androcentrism.
  - - - Exceptionally successful women scientists
    - - Both genders occupy low-ranking positions in techno-scientific projects.
    - - Pioneering gender studies reconstructed women's scientific histories
      - Women's active roles in science were often unrecognized, reinforcing stereotypes
      - For gender equity in STEM, embracing a transnational framework is crucial.
  - - - Trust, camaraderie, and competitiveness.
    - - Independence, competitiveness, scientific disputes, and duels.
    - - Scientists depicted as masculine, nature feminized, reinforcing gender norms.
  - - - Examples?
        
        Charles Darwin's sexual selection theory
        
        Darwin's sexual selection impact studied in gender science
        
        Gender bias in sexual selection theories actively explored for natural diversity.
        
        18th-century skeleton drawings
    - - Traditional gender ideologies: binaries, conflict, blurred explanations.
      - Gender studies reveal influence of stereotypes on science
    - - Height, weight, training regimes play bigger roles in athletes' advantage.
      - Gender verification in women athletes shows sports double standard.
      - Proposal: Segregate elite events by hormone levels, not gender.
    - - Since early modern times, science simplified human sex differences.
      - Female skeletons: smaller skulls, wider pelvises
      - Darwin's (1871) emphasized sexual selection in mate competition.
    - - Textbook gendered language perpetuates fertilization misconceptions
      - Clarke's 'Sex in Education' (1873) linked women's health to education suitability.
    - - Biological determinism to research on human sexualities and behaviors
      - Human development complexity limits direct links from prenatal hormones
      - Hormone studies use quasi-experiments and animals due to ethics
      - Jordan-Young's research debunked male-female brain differences.
  - - - Not just binary, but also emblematic of the "eternal war between men and women."
      - Male and female gonads' steroid hormones symbolize the "essences" of masculinity and femininity.
    - - The egg is likened to a 'dormant bride,' awaiting a kiss to awaken (Martin, 1991).
      - Sperm compete to 'rescue' the passive egg (ovum)
- - - - Discovery of Carbon Dioxide Permanence
        
        In the 1960s, scientists acknowledged CO2's lasting presence in the atmosphere.
        
        This realization marked the start of humanity's modern Earth relationship.
      - Key Events in the Late 20th Century
        
        In 1997, the U.S. Senate unanimously rejected Clinton's Kyoto treaty proposal.
        
        In 1997, the U.S. Senate rejected the Kyoto treaty.
        
        In 1989, U.S. government largely ignored James Hansen's global warming concerns.
    - - Shift to Scientific Knowledge
        
        Shift to scientific understanding in the industrial era.
        
        The Enlightenment promoted empirical and rational views of the world.
      - Impact on Environmentalism
        
        Romantics saw tech alienating from nature, viewing environmental crises spiritually.
        
        Rational environmentalists adopt technology to address environmental issues.
        
        The Enlightenment led to a divergence in environmentalist ideologies.
    - - Shift in Environmentalism
        
        Stewart Brand highlighted that environmentalists defend civilization
        
        Hari emphasized environmentalism's urgency.
        
        Environmentalism now encompasses defending civilization
        
        Key: identifying the right environmentalists for a warming planet.
      - Romantics vs.Rationalists on Geoengineering
        
        McKibben warns against geoengineering, promotes unity with nature.
        
        Rationalists back geoengineering for Earth stewardship and reducing suffering.
        
        Romantics now oppose geoengineering, favoring reduced human impact on the planet.
    - - Balancing Perspectives
        
        Stewart Brand supports an 'eco-pragmatist' approach to geoengineering.
        
        Humanity's stewardship of the planet requires balanced decision-making.
        
        Balancing Enlightenment views shapes geoengineering decisions.
      - Uncertainties and Consequences
        
        Events may determine humanity's climate management responsibility.
        
        Climate stewardship failure may trigger conflicts over environmental control.
        
        Future choice: embrace geoengineering or face dire consequences.
    - - Leopold advocated preserving the biotic community's integrity, stability, and beauty.
      - McKibben highlighted global warming as a failure in Leopold's vision for humanity.
      - Aldo Leopold emphasized human responsibility for the global ecosystem.
    - - Global warming forces humanity to redefine its relationship with nature.
      - Global warming symbolized a failure in environmental responsibility
    - - He stressed science and leverage principles in tools like gears and pulleys.
      - In contrast to romantics, Fuller saw nature as manipulable, separate from humanity.
      - Fuller emphasized Earth's "machine" upkeep to avoid failure.
      - A Few Contemporary Rational Views
        
        Cities crucial for combating climate change with lower per-person emissions.
        
        Advocates endorse unconventional solutions like nuclear power and GMOs.
        
        Technology seen as solution to ecological challenges.
        
        Addressing global warming requires new governance and technologies.
  - - - Fossil fuels drive global climate change by emitting most greenhouse gases.
    - - Climate manipulation to counter global warming.
      - Different Approaches
        
        Removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
        
        Modifying weather
        
        Managing solar radiation to mitigate global warming.
      - Different Planetary Ecosystem Targets
        
        Air
        
        Water
        
        Land
      - Sunlight manipulation in the atmosphere.
  - - - CDR and SRM are two main geo engineering categories
        
        CDR removes CO2; SRM reflects solar energy
        
        CDR helps mitigate ocean acidification; SRM does not.
      - Geo engineering has varying costs and benefits
      - Geo engineering mitigates global warming
    - - Objective climate approaches are hindered by complex dynamics and diverse perspectives.
      - Policy debates often lack shared factual foundations for objective discussions.
      - Disagreement on the appropriate level of concern for temperature and climate changes.
      - Rhetoric and Morality in Climate Change Debate
        
        Focus on moral rhetoric in climate debates and refusal to negotiate with perceived evil.
        
        Opponents label supporters 'climate Nazis' for advocating regulation.
      - Geoengineering Arguments
        
        Concerns about unpredictable outcomes from geoengineering
        
        Geoengineering research may reduce emissions pressure (moral hazard).
        
        Geoengineering Arguments; uncertainties, risks, and moral hazard.
      - False Dichotomy in Climate Change Debate
        
        Human activity's choice impacts Earth's systems: isolated or impactful.
        
        Anthropogenic climate change seen as symptom of larger emerging reality.
        
        Critique of Kyoto Protocol vs. geoengineering false dichotomy.
    - - Transition to the Anthropocene
        
        Recognition of the Anthropocene, where human activity impacts Earth's systems.
        
        Developing capacity to manage interconnected systems for a sustainable future.
        
        Advocating for a planetary perspective to address Anthropocene challenges.
      - Inadequacy of Current Responses
        
        Highlighting challenges in climate change debates and related issues.
        
        Concerns about inadequate responses to Anthropocene challenges.
        
        Illustrating challenges through climate change debates and related issues.
    - - Capacity Development for Sustainability
        
        Developing capacity to manage complex systems stressed by human activity.
        
        Shift towards accurately framing the reality of the systems being addressed.
      - Irreversibility of Human Impact and Evolution
        
        Lowering carbon to pre-industrial levels won't restore the planet.
        
        Complex adaptive systems lack a default setting to revert to.
        
        Irreversibility of Evolution
        
        Pragmatic, sustainable ecosystem management, with evolving human integration.
        
        Tool-using intelligence's impact is irreversible; evolution doesn't regress.
    - - The Anthropocene stems from tool-using intelligence and technological civilization.
      - This innovation disrupts Earth's systems, akin to past evolutionary milestones.
    - - Human Capacity and Responsibility
        
        Humans lack the capacity to responsibly manage the planetary ecosystem.
        
        Understanding of physical, chemical, and biological systems deepened, more learning needed.
      - Technological Evolution
        
        Technological evolution accelerates, challenging our understanding of the Anthropocene.
        
        Advancements converge to shape humanity as a design space.
      - Ethical and Rational Response
        
        Humanity must ethically navigate technological and environmental changes.
        
        Develop basic principles for effective institutional and policy responses.
      - Managing Anthropogenic Challenges
        
        Adaptability and Learning
        
        Continuous learning is vital in the Anthropocene to tackle evolving challenges.
        
        Pluralistic institutions and cultures are favored for complex adaptive systems.
        
        Facing the Reality
        
        Courage to accept reality is crucial; no quick fixes.
        
        Climate change conflict misrepresents Anthropocene challenges.
        
        Conditions of the Anthropocene
        
        Anthropocene challenges are interconnected, requiring management, not solutions.
        
        Conscious cultivation of options crucial for adapting to Earth system changes.
    - - Climate change is often portrayed as solvable through policy or technology.
      - Climate change discussions evade knowledge and responsibility.
      - Addressing only climate change treats symptoms, not the root cause.
  - - - Industrial Revolution
      - First atomic bomb
      - Mid-20th Century Great Acceleration
    - - Informal geologic time unit.
    - - The Golden Spike delineates a new geological era.
      - Nuclear signature in Crawford Lake may indicate a notable increase
    - - How does Allenby relate the Anthropocene to
        climate change?
        
        Restoring pre-industrial state impossible.
        
        Avoiding knowledge and responsibility in climate discussions.
        
        The Anthropocene
        
        a result of tool-using intelligence and technological civilization.
    - - Addressing symptoms, not the root cause.
  - - - Human technology as part of Earth's ecosystem
      - Gaia challenged views on human impact and pollution
      - Lovelock saw humans as integral to Earth's system.
  - - - He compares geoengineering to natural processes like those of beavers and earthworms.
      - Brand advocates for safe, legal, and rare implementation of geoengineering.
      - Brand supports geoengineering as a tool to address environmental challenges
    - - The new task requires unprecedented global actions.
      - Recognizing global challenges is vital for effective environmental action.
      - Environmentalists urged to prioritize safeguarding civilization over natural systems.
  - - - He believed in human responsiveness to ecological harm.
      - Humans integral to Gaia; cautioned against biosphere subjugation
      - Lovelock trusted in practical, economical technology for Gaia harmony
    - - Suggested extreme measures like the Pinatubo Option for climate crisis.
      - Acknowledged past inaction, emphasizing urgent action now.
      - Lovelock stressed personal action against deforestation and car use.
    - - Stressed humans as Earth's heart and mind despite past mistakes.
      - Lovelock emphasized human control on 'Spaceship Earth'
      - Lovelock emphasized human responsibility in Earth's 'nervous system'.
  - - - Doubtful of biochar's effectiveness in geoengineering.
      - Suggested geoengineering for temporary climate adaptation.
      - Lovelock proposed mass biochar for carbon sequestration
    - - Warned of Kafkaesque outcomes from climate regulation.
      - Alerted to dire consequences of global warming
      - Doubted human capacity for geoengineering Earth's stability.
    - - Hoping for the best while fearing the worst.
      - Emphasized gravity of situation, warned against optimism
      - Lovelock stood out as a leading pessimist among climate scientists.
- - - - Enacted in 2006 to reduce California's carbon to 1990 levels by 2020
      - Charged California Air Resources Board with diverse stakeholder plan.
      - Global Warming Solutions Act
      - More?
        
        Emphasized renewables and low-emission vehicle standards
        
        Implemented regulations to enhance energy efficiency
        
        Implemented cap-and-trade in 2012 for carbon pricing and energy tech
      - Post-Schwarzenegger Era
        
        California's achievements contrast with varied climate efforts elsewhere.
        
        Stressed importance of steadfast climate policies for lasting success
        
        California Air Resources Board tasked with inclusive plan creation
        
        California sustains climate initiatives, meeting 2030 and 2050 emission targets
    - - Swift action needed in wealthy nations for decarbonization.
      - Advocated for international enforcement like carbon tariffs.
      - Global Challenge of Collective Action
      - Proposed 'climate club' of motivated countries for decarbonization
      - Addressed voluntary agreement flaws, stressed enforceable measures.
    - - Role of Carbon Capture and Storage
        
        Rising importance of bioenergy with carbon capture in decarbonization
        
        Encouraging carbon capture for global decarbonization
        
        Critical to extract CO2 from atmosphere, prevent temperature rise
      - Role of Biofuels
        
        Brazil's sugar cane biofuel for phasing out gasoline and economic growth
        
        Influence of biofuel provider selection on EU environmental strategy
        
        Assessing the impact of biofuels on food prices and biodiversity.
      - Role of Geoengineering
        
        Methods; carbon extraction, solar deflection, acidification
        
        Acknowledging risks of geoengineering for climate change
        
        Inevitability of integrating geoengineering into climate mitigation.
    - - Importance of Policy Feasibility
        
        Adapting preferences to feasibility barriers
        
        Avoiding rigid adherence, acknowledging imperfect options
        
        Considering feasibility in climate policy decisions
      - Misconceptions in Climate Solutions
        
        Assessing carbon pricing for efficient decarbonization policies
        
        Critique of nuclear power's role in decarbonization
  - - - keep politicians ‘climate-sincere'
  - - - Participating in civil actions to exert political influence.
      - Considering civil disobedience against insincere climate narratives.
      - Civil actions and civil disobedience
      - Considering individual responsibility in addressing climate change
- - - - Non-exploitative 16th-century European encounters with non-Europeans.
      - First Opium Wars (1839-42) depicted Europeans in a bigoted manner.
      - Imperialism vs colonialism
        
        Imperialism: Power expansion through control.
        
        Colonialism: Dominance through territory acquisition.
    - - Exploitation Colonialism
        
        Colonists prioritize local resource utilization over exports to the metropole.
      - Settler Colonialism
        
        Massive migration fueled by religious, political, or economic reasons.
    - - Forceful measures were routinely sanctioned to uphold order.
      - Statism, implying extensive state control over the economy
      - Colonial states exhibited bureaucratic elitism and authoritarianism.
      - Technological superiority reinforced colonial control and European superiority myths.
    - - Colonialism depends on the distinction between wild and domesticated animals.
      - Colonization as an Enterprise of Domestication Includes at least Three Factor
        
        Colonialism in developing countries entails viewing natives as animals.
        
        Colonial exploitation: natives as animals, colonists as humans.
        
        Colonial dehumanization through animalization.
    - - Ethnocentrism: belief in the superiority of one culture over another
      - Race & Racism: biological and sociological concepts
      - The state of race relations
      - Poverty and disparities
      - Global development focus
    - - Trade growth and social changes challenge Mughal authority.
      - Including the Indian subcontinent in the capitalist world-system
      - Colonial authorities sought knowledge for governance, revealing power dynamics.
      - The impact of colonialism on science and technology development
        
        Geography and sediment theory
        
        Engineering Education
        
        Botany
    - - Macro
        
        Science and Tech as Tools to Rule and Administer Lands and People
        
        such as
        
        Surveys (of people and lands)
        
        Records (of people and lands)
        
        Both Admin Strategies and Techniques for Control
        
        Infrastructures
      - Micro
        
        Scientists using colonial enterprise to advance their careers.
    - - Colonial authorities leveraged expertise for territorial control and governance.
      - Scientists exploited colonial expansion to pursue their own interests. (Micro)
      - Structure-Agency Interplay
    - - Colonial science contributed significantly to overall scientific advancement.
        
        Examples
        
        engineer education
        
        Geology,
        
        Botany
        
        Agriculture
        
        Medicine
      - Science was facilitated by colonialism, in turn contributed to scientific development.
    - - Swift and extensive technological advancements (in biotech)
      - Pharma targets align with conservation efforts.
      - Global market-based economic reasoning
      - Global biodiversity and IP standardization efforts underway.
    - - Role of Private Companies
      - Priivate Property
      - Ethical obligation (to modernize, develop, and ensure freedom)
      - Extractive
        
        Through Science
      - Global Capitalism
      - Washington Consensus and Biocolonialism
        
        Trade liberalization
        
        Liberalization of FDI
        
        Deregulation
        
        Introduction of Private Property Rights
  - - - Some Critics of Science Studies
        
        Some sociologists argue scientific knowledge is entirely socially constructed.
        
        Sociologists, despite differences, expose 'science wars' limits.
        
        Critics claim science studies follow a radical constructivist agenda.
      - Perspectives on ScienceConstruction
        
        'Actor-network' theory blurs social and natural boundaries.
        
        "Moderate constructivism" integrates social insights into a macro framework.
        
        'Institutional sociology' and 'actor network theory' enrich the field.
    - - Pre-Colonial Science in India
        
        Pre-colonial India saw both intense scientific activity and long dormant periods.
        
        Pre-colonial India contributed to global science and technology.
        
        Basalla's Eurocentric view vs Alvares' view on pre-colonial India's science.
      - Role of Scientific Knowledge in Colonial India
        
        Colonization contributed to shaping modern science and technology.
        
        Colonial structures and amateurs influenced science and rule.
        
        Science and technology were crucial in colonial rule's expansion in India.
    - - Institutionalization of Modern Science
        
        The Asiatic Society introduced modern science in India.
        
        The journal Asiatic Researches disseminated scientific research in India.
        
        Asiatic Society, founded 1784 by William Jones, formalized research in colonial India.
      - Scientific Surveys and Mapping
        
        Mapping and measuring territories aided in consolidating administrative power.
        
        Surveys transformed a trading company into a colonial state in India.
        
        Colonial India's scientific controversies: nature-culture co-production.
    - - Debate Over Scientific Education in Colonial India
        
        Anglicists favored Western science in English over indigenous education.
        
        Orientalists favored gradual European science, resisting abrupt pedagogical shifts.
        
        1835 debate: Science education and colonial rule legitimacy.
      - Scientific Knowledge and the Modern Indian Nation-State
        
        Scientific discourses shaped modern Indian nation-state.
        
        Surveyors and Asiatic Society institutionalized science in colonial India.
        
        Mapping and surveying shaped modern India's nation-state.
    - - Indian Elite's Response to Modern Science
        
        Roy criticized Sanskrit education for hindering knowledge.
        
        Bengal elite embraced English for social mobility over Persian.
      - Recommendation for the Diffusion of European Arts and Sciences
        
        Transfer of knowledge aimed to inspire Indian resource development and British goods demand.
        
        Dispatch suggested sharing European arts, science, labor benefits with India.
    - - Expansion of Infrastructure Projects
        
        Dalhousie's projects: railways, telegraph, postal systems for social good.
        
        Railways modernized India's economy and linked regions.
      - Establishment of Public Works Department
        
        Railways modernized and connected India.
        
        In 1854, Public Works prioritized irrigation to address revenue decline.
    - - Famine Management through Science
        
        Famines spurred scientific agriculture focus in India.
        
        Meteorological stations studied sunspot activity and rainfall correlations.
      - Role of Agricultural Research Stations
        
        Viceroy Curzon emphasized teaching science for societal betterment.
        
        Research stations aimed to address famines, but the problem persisted.
    - - Achievements and Legacy of IndianScientists
        
        Indian scientists faced hostility but excelled, with Raman winning the Nobel Prize in 1930.
        
        IACS became mainstream, reflecting Indian scientists' resilience against colonialism.
      - Challenges Faced by Indian Scientists
        
        Indian scientists faced discrimination and undervaluation by colonial authorities.
        
        IACS founded as platform for Indian scientists.
    - - Role of Indian Scientific Institutions
        
        The Indian Association for Science challenged colonial ideologies, fostering Indian agency.
        
        Postcolonial India's policy integration reflects colonial science legacy.
      - Co-Production of Science and Colonialism
        
        Colonial projects reshaped society and knowledge in India and Britain.
        
        Science, technology, colonialism, and the modern world influenced each other.
- - - - Columbus's Attitude Towards Indians
        
        Denial of different human substance stemmed from egocentrism.
        
        Two forms of otherness arise from linking personal values to universal ones.
        
        His behavior involved projecting his own values onto others.
        
        Encountering otherness was influenced by the belief in the world's unity.
        
        Columbus saw Indians as either equals or inferiors due to differences.
      - Discovery of Primitiveness
        
        The concept of primitiveness was a complex historical invention.
        
        It revealed an inability to confront its own duality.
        
        This concept was examined in V.Y. Mudimbe's book, 'The Invention of Africa'.
        
        It emphasized the complexities of historical perceptions and biases.
        
        The invention of primitiveness shaped historical narratives and perspectives.
      - Indigenous Post-Colonial Critique
        
        Questions power dynamics in self-validation and standard-setting.
        
        Challenges victor-centric epistemology and history writing.
        
        Questions the validity of indigenous beliefs and the rationality of indigenous peoples.
    - - Gender Issues
        
        There's a need to explore overlooked gender issues in essays.
        
        Gender dynamics are influential in shaping knowledge systems.
        
        Appleton's selection emphasized the risks of neglecting women's knowledge.
        
        Gender perspectives enhance studying diverse knowledge systems.
        
        Analyzing gender dynamics within diverse knowledge systems is essential.
      - Fundamentalism and Traditional Knowledge
        
        Recognition of diverse knowledge challenges scientific narratives.
        
        Indigenous knowledge offers unique insights into nature's complexities.
        
        Non-Western knowledge systems' value questions creationism and intelligent design.
        
        Cultural diversity in knowledge systems offers scientific benefits and innovation.
        
        Fundamentalisms justify resistance against dominant Western culture.
      - Ethics and Politics of Extracting Information
        
        Developing new research protocols for diverse societies is necessary.
        
        Ethical considerations in collecting information from vulnerable cultures.
    - - Response to Dissent in Argentina
        
        In Argentina, dissenters disappear when opposed.
        
        The tactic of disappearance erases local knowledge systems globally.
      - Monopoly of Western Knowledge Systems
        
        Excluding other knowledge systems reinforces the dominant system's monopoly.
        
        The label "scientific" grants sacredness and social immunity to Western knowledge systems.
    - - Co-Existence with Cultural Identities
        
        They're intertwined with the cultural identities and structures of societies.
        
        Other cultures' knowledge systems reflect their intellectual and ethical legacies.
      - Understanding Unfamiliar Logics
        
        Studying other cultures' knowledge introduces new perspectives on
        
        natural order and research methods to Westerners.
        
        Examples
        
        attributing human characteristics to
        
        magical beliefs
        
        spiritual understandings
        
        natural phenomena
      - Empirical Reliability of Traditional Knowledge
        
        Other cultures' knowledge evolved for environmental interaction.
        
        These sciences exhibit empirical reliability in natural and social contexts.
  - - - The process of turning alternative ways of knowing into commodities.
      - Resistance against commodifying alternative ways of knowing.
      - Alternative ways of knowing beyond conventional science.
    - - Ancient and empirically Reliable Non-Western sciences
        
        They are contextually relevant.
      - Other cultures' sciences are shaped by their culture, history, and institutions.
        
        Like western science
        
        Protecting sciences means safeguarding culture, history, and institutions.
      - Understanding unfamiliar logics unveils sophisticated abstractions by presumed 'primitive' people.
        
        It can refine our understanding of other cultures' sciences.
      - Recognizing diverse scientific rationalities.
        
        It can be beneficial to adopt a critical view of Western scientific epistemology.l
        
        This approach relieves Western science from knowing everything about everything.
      - Other cultures' sciences contribute to enhancing Western science.
        
        Understanding others enhances self-understanding.
        
        Acknowledging other cultures enhances modern objectivity and methodology
  - - - Globalization and Knowledge Flows
        
        Post-colonial STS studies global knowledge influenced by colonial history.
      - Ethical Considerations
        
        Challenges role in addressing colonial legacies and promoting social justice in science.
      - Environmental Justice and Sustainability
        
        Post-colonial STS studies colonial environmental impacts and advocates for science equity.
      - Activism and Advocacy
        
        Post-colonial STS collaborates for transformative change in science and society.
      - and Resistance
        
        Post-colonial STS drives change in science, technology, and society through collaboration.