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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY STUDIES, Lay criteria for judgment of science.,…
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY STUDIES
Introduction to History and Philosophy Of Science
The conventional views of science
Scientist should be able to agree on important questions and consideration
Different scientist should perform an experiment similarly
Different scientist considering the same evidence should accept and reject the same hypothesis
The History of philosophy of science
what is Science?
Three approaches to answering the question in 20th century
Inductivism
Inductive reasoning moves from specific statements to general conclusion
The conclusion is generalization that has conditions beyond the initially accepted statements.
How inductivism work in science
In this view, scientist gather data, make measurement, collect observation and they build up to generalizations.
The problem with inductivism
Data undermines theory
If induction is probabilistic, at what probability does the conclusion become justify?
Falsification
The central claim of falsification is that it can used to definitively eliminate generalizations.
Scientific work consists of rigorously testing and trying to falsify theories, rather than collecting observations to support some induction.
How Falsification work in science
In this view, theories never stop being tested. Scientific knowledge is not infallible, as any theory could be falsified tomorrow, or next week.
The problem with falsification
Prediction in science is typically the result of collections of statements. When falsified, many possible ways to attribute falsification. Falsification is ambiguous.
Paradigmatic science
This is where Thomas Kuhn attempts to describe how a science develops over time, and he identifies certain periods wherein different characteristic practices of science can be identified.
Pre-paradigmatic Science
Characterized by lack of consensus
there are competing school of thought with variable views on major problems in the field
May differ on how solutions should how sought
May differ oh what phenomena or data continues the field.
Normal Science.
Characterized by Consensus around a Paradigm
This takes place when one school become dominant by providing some solutions to some notable problem
The solution acts as an example, structuring framework
Puzzle solving in normal science
Scientific work is akin "puzzle solving"
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Scientists are motivated by the puzzle solving challenge. not creation theory
Knowledge accumulates
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Anomalies and Crisis
Characterized by questioning of the paradigm
modification
Consensus remain upon the relevant problems that need solving
Unsolved puzzles accumulate or persist such that doubt about whether the paradigm is capable of solving the puzzle develops
Revolution
Characterized by paradigm change
The state of crisis is resolved by formation of consensus that the relevant problems are solved
Often, main achievement of previous paradigm may be retained this not but is not neccesary
Incommensurability
According to Kuhn, paradigm provide an entire conceptual structure by which to examine and interpret the world.
Similarities between Inductivism & Falsification
Science accumulates, progresses, improves over time.
Philosophy of science is about identifying normative principles that can distinguish good science from bad science, or how science “ought to be done”.
There is a distinction between theory and observation. Observation supports or falsifies generalizations (theory).
SOCIAL STUDIES OF SCIENTIFIC CONTROVERSIES
How can we understand scientific controversies?
Looking at fact and artifact before they have been black-boxed
At the forefront of fields, results of experiments are unknown
Experiment are meant to answer genuinely open questions
Approaching controversies symmetrically
Be impartial with respect to truth and falsity, rationality or irrationality, success or failure.
Both sides of these dichotomies require explanation.
Resolution of controversies
Detailed critiques of observations, experiments and positions.
New test, and calibration of instruments and procedure
Isolating one position as more scientific or central – or as deviant
Showing one position to be more
useful
Ignoring deviant viewpoints and
data
Public Understanding of Science
Relates to the attitudes behaviours, opinions, and activities that comprise the relations between the general public or lay
society as a whole to scientific knowledge and organisation
The dominant model of science
popularization
This model argues that science is true, complex and
hard to communicate
• Science communication as problematic but necessary "evil"
Deficit Model
It claim that public lack the acceptance of scientific consensus and also assume that expert holds the knowledge and that the public lack understanding
Challenging the Deficit Model
Yearley /Sismondo
Scientific knowledge contains implicit normative assumptions about the social world.
A large part of the public
evaluation of scientific knowledge is via the evaluation of the institutions
Members of the interested public often have expertise that bears on the problem which may conflict with
scientific expertise
Wynne
Scientists made assumptions about the culture and economics of sheep farming.
On a number of occasions scientists ignored the farmers’ own expertise about the habits of sheep and the productivity of the
hillsides.
The farmers had a history of muted distrust of government positions and of government scientists on the issue
Scientific Controversy
Sources of Scientific controversy
Theoritical Disputes
Scientist may have different theoretical perspective, leading to disagreement about the implication of research findings
Methodological differences
scientists may disagree on the methods used to collect or analyze data
Public misunderstanding
scientific controversies can arise from misunderstandings or misinterpretations by the public
Expertise & Public Participation
in Science and Technology
kinds of scientific expertise
Members of the lay public, in addition to those with relevant credentials, often have expertise that bears on technical decisions
Contributors to fields, those who successfully interact with those contributors, and those who can successfully evaluate contributions
Civic Science
An approach that teaches how science practice and knowledge can serve as tools of empowerment for civic
engagementdemocratic action, political change, and
community revitalization
civic epistemologies
Why is Matters to Scientific Governance
Each culture arrives at its own civic epistemology, which becomes a locally legitimate response to the issue
Civic epistemologies shape how decisions about science and technology are made within society. Governance frameworks need to be aligned with these cultural norms and practices to foster inclusive decision-making processes
Scientific Governance
The effort to enhance the responsiveness of science and technology to public concerns by acknowledging the influence of local values on the creation and utilization of knowledge
GENDER AND STEM
Co-production of Gender and Stem.
Gender
self-identity and non-reproductive attributes, behavoiurs, social roles by which people identify as women, men or non-binary
Dimensions of Gender
Individual: sexual identity and self-expression
Cultural: cultural beliefs, norms, and symbols
Social: social relations, social roles, social activities
Sex
physical and biological characteristics of an organism’s reproductive system, by which the individuals of a sexually-reproducing
Characteristics of reproductive system.
Chromosomes
Genes
Hormones
Gendered Science
Science is not just about the representation of women but also about how it is inherently gendered.
History of science predominantly involves men, and cultural constructions of masculinity influence scientific endeavors.
Feminist Critique of Science
The concept of a feminist science is explored, challenging existing scientific epistemologies entangled with oppressive power structures
Feminist scholars aim to critique how social and cultural ideas about gender influence scientific research.
The Science of Gender
Gender Bias in Theories of Sexual Selection
Reevaluation of the diversity of genders and sexualities found in nature.
Darwinian Views on Gender Differences
Darwin associates women with "savage" races and primitive emotions.
Women's supposed mental disposition and emotional nature linked to lower civilization stages.
Science and the Environment
Cause of Climate Change
The burning of fossil fuels is the primary contributor.
Coal
Oil
Gas
Contribution to Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Fossil fuels account for over 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
They contribute to nearly 90% of all carbon dioxide emissions.
Geo-Engineering and The Pinatubo option.
Geo-Egineering
Deliberate large-scale manipulation of environmental processes to counteract global warming.
Approaches
Solar radiation management
Carbon dioxide removal
Weather modification
Different planetary ecosystem targets
Land
water
Air
The Pinatubo Option
Involves injecting sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight and reduce global temperatures
The Anthropocene
Describes the era marked by human actions significantly impacting the planet.
Colonialism, Science, Technology and Society
Colonialism
Practice of extending territories, forming colonies and settlement and exploiting their resources
The practice of acquiring a partial or full control over another country
Forms of Colonialism
Settler Colonialism
large-scale immigration, often motivated
by religious, political, or economic reason,
Exploitation colonialism
fewer colonists and focuses on
access to resources for export, typically to the metropole.
characteristics that all colonial states
share
Hegemonic ideology reinforced by claims about the benevolent nature
of the colonial rule by the invincible great power
Statism, which translated to comprehensive command over the
economy by the state.
The use of force was regularly sanctioned to maintain order.
Lasting Effects of Colonialism
Race & Racism
Biological and sociological notions
Ethnocentrisms.
Blief in the superiority of one culture
over another.
Imperialism
The ideology that drives colonialism
Can be categorized and formal and informal imperialism
Non-Western Knowledge & Other Culture’s
Science.
Benefits of Other Culture Sciences.
Reliability and Adaptability
Empirically reliable in relevant environment,
Tested and adapted over centuries
Effective Interaction with Environment.
Enable effective interaction with natural and social environment
Contributes to sustainability and development.
Culture Legitimacy
Acknowledment of other cultures knowledge.
Promotes culture diversity and inclusive
other cultures values science because they have tested and adapted over centuries, proving their reliability in their environments
Challenges
Gender Issues.
Addressing gender disparities in accessing and contributing to knowledge systems.
Recognizing the costs of ignoring women's knowledge.
Identifying other gender issues that may be overlooked in the discourse.
Fundamentalisms and Traditional Knowledge:
Examining how fundamentalist ideologies can resist dominant Western culture through traditional knowledge systems.
Questioning whether the acknowledgment of non-Western knowledge necessitates valuing creationism and intelligent design.
Recognizing the historical context of religious interpretations of nature's order and their evolution in scientific understanding
Scientific Validity.
Assessing the scientific validity of indigenous knowledge systems.
Exploring how indigenous knowledge systems may offer insights into nature's regularities beyond modern Western sciences.
Considering the scientific benefits of cultural diversity in knowledge systems.
Lay criteria for judgment of science.
Are scientists open to criticism?
example: : No recognition of other legitimate knowledges and expert actors
What issue ‘overspill‘ exists in lay experience?
Example: from Chernobyl to Windscale-Sellafield lack of rational connection for scientists because institutional dimensions defined out a priori.
Does the scientific knowledge work?
For example: predictions fail
What Inductivism and Falsification agree.