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Transport in Mammals - pt.2, when equal - no net movement, sources,…
Transport in Mammals - pt.2
carbon dioxide transport
comes into the blood through rapidly matabolising tissue
100ml blood receives 3.7ml of co2
pp of co2 is as much as 46mm of mercury
has to be trasnported
3 ways to transport
solubility is 21 times greater than of oxy
5% co2 remains in undissociated and forms
physical
solution in blood plasma
10% has affinity to bind to amino group in Hb
Hb has the amino group
combines with co2 to form
Hb-NH2+CO2 ->
Hb-NH-CO2 +H2
carb-amino-haemoglobin
85% in the form of carbonic acid
catalysed by carbonic anhydrase
dissociates into h+ ions and carbon dioxideions
co2 rich blood moves to alveoli
in alveoli, more oxygen than carbond dioxide
when Hb + co2 reaches close alveoli
diff situation - pp of oxy in alveoli is high, and pp of co2 in blood is high
steep gradient
hb has affinity to gas which is in high pp
so when it comes, carboxy/carbamino hb dissociates and binds to oxygen to become oxyhaemoglobin
oxy and carboxy hb
oxy hb acidity is stronger acod when compared to carboxy hb
so dissociates to give a large amount of ions
H+ ions are released
to balance this loss of positive charge, bicarbonate ions move in
opposite of chloride shift
carbonic acid formed again in hb
3 sources of h+ and co2 release it into the alveoli
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body fluids
2
blood
description
sticky connective tissue
with a fluid matrix
salty and alkaline nature
thicker than water :laughing:
1.03 - 1.05 - specific gravity more than water
5-6 times greater viscosity than water
7-8% of total body weight :weight_lifter:
functions
3
transport :railway_car:
nutrients, respiratory gases, excretory wastes, metabolites
important for transport
defense mechanism :shield:
presence of thrombocytes
prevents loss of blood
has immunological function
produces antibodies
kill pathogen/ neutralise effects of toxins produced by pathogens
important for regulating :sunny:
distributing body temperature
maintain osmotic balance - water and solutes
composition
2 maj
non cellular component
plasma
watery component :sweat_drops:
free fm blood cells
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fluid matrix of blood - blood plasma
largest component
55%
3 important components
proteins :meat_on_bone:
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water :sweat_drops:
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solutes
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can undergo coagulation
functions
transport
distribution of hormones
regulation of temperature
osmo regulation
buffer - 7.3-7.5
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immunological functions
cellular component
formed elements
corpuscles
suspended cells
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3 imp
erythrocytes - rbcs
transport of oxygen
leukocytes - wbcs
defense mechanism, phagocytosis
blood platelets -
prevents fatal loss of blood by coagulation
erythrocytes
description
red blood cells
red coloured oxy carrying cells of the body
size
relatively small
greater size vol ratio
high surface area
number
high when polycythemia condition
depending on physiological conditions it influences the no of blood cells
when too low - erythropenia
avg - 4.5-5 million m^3 of blood
formation of blood cells
hemopoiesis
any blood cells
in bone marrow
shape
biconcave disk shaped structure
important for surface area:vol ratio to be high
extremely specialised
formation
erythropoiesis
formed fm bone marrow
ribs, vertebrate, breast bone or sternum, ilium of hip/pelvic girdle, limbs
colour
red
respiratory pigment - haemoglobin
individual cells
pale yellow colour
when you look at each one individually
adaptations
small, biconcave and disk shaped
no nucleus
e-nucleated
as it matures/gets specialised, it loses the nucleus
since it interferes with the space
more space to load on haemoglobin without the nucleus
no mitochondria
it would use up all the oxygen
no endoplasmic reticulum
network of channels fm nucleus to membrane
otherwise it would be too rigid
it needs to be flexible to squeeze through the capps
diapedesis is only possible without E.R
rouleaux
like chloroplast can be arranged in stacks
specific arrangement
ability to be stacked like thylakoids
like books on top of each other
lifespan
120 days
systematically destroyed
hemolysis - blood + breakdown
breakdown of haemoglobin
heme and protein
prosthetic group used to synthesise more haemoglobin
globin to produce bile pigments - like bilirubin and biliviridin
hemolysis happens in---
in spleen, liver, thymus (gland in thoracic region)
functions
transport of respiratory gases to and away fm tissues
leucocytes - wbcs
description
in bone marrow
relatively large in size
colourless
differ fm rbcs in a number of aspects
number
compared to rbcs, 4.5 million,
it is lesser
7-10 thousand per cubic mm
structure
relatively large
well developed nucleus
don't have a proper shape
amoeboid shape - irregular like amoeba
large nucleus
tendency to produce pseudopodia
locomotive structures to move and squeeze through
squeeze through squamous epithelium
formation
called leucopoiesis
significant large no of rbcs compared to wbcs
when wbcs are high - leucocytosis
when wbcs are low like in blood cancer
leucopenia
also formed in red bone marrow of large bones not white marrow
in spleen, lymph glands like in tonsils, thymus
lifespan
larger
don't last long
12 hours to 12 days
can easily get destroyed
in same regions where made - liver, spleen
types of leucocytes - wbcs
important logic - have granules or not --- 2 types based on cytoplasm and nucleus shape and morphology
granules present
granular/granulocytes
can take up different stains
3
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
not present/ no granules
a granular/ agranulocytes
macrophages
2 types
lymphocytes
produce antibodies
3 types - B T and Natural Killer cells
monocytes
granular
eosinophils/ acidophils
description
nucleus is bi-lobed
2 lobes
granules are large and conspicious
but basic/alkaline in nature
so can take up acid stains - eosin
granules have
rich in hydrolytic enzymes and peroxidases
toxic chemicals
prodiced in large numbers whenever allergic reaction
because of anti-histiminic activity
because ability to produce toxins
all leucocytes can carry out phagocytosis
produced in the bone marrow
basophils
description
nucleus is large and indefinitely lobed
characteristic of basophils
presence of large and conspicious granules
but they're acidic
can take up basic stains
methylene blue
granules produce heparin and histamine
heparin - anti coagulation
histamine - inflammatory in nature
produced in large numbers during allergies that trigger inflammatory reactions
neutrophils
description
nucleus
tri-lobed
three lobes
granules
granules are relatively fine and inconspicious
take up acidic and basic stains
so called neutrophils
capable of performing functions
3
phagocytosis
clearing out cellular debris
scavenging
excellent scavengers
can squeeze through the capp wall through diapedesis
produced in bone marrow
a granulocytes
cytoplasm has no granules
lymphocytes
description
smallest leucocytes
also produced in lymph glands
spleen, tonsils, etc
produce antibodies
presence of large nucleus
no lobes
cytoplasm has no granules
monocytes
description
largest wbcs
have a nucleus, nucleus is kidney-shaped
only way to identify
important property
wherever infection
can reach there first
able to squeeze though capp and reach
when reaches, transforms into macrophages, (big cells + can do phagocytosis)
only produced in bone marrow
produced in bone marrow
functions of leucocytes/ wbcs
generally provide immunity
protect fm invasion by pathogens
mobile forces (soldiers)
phago or antibodies
scavenging
clear dead cellular or otherwise debris or fragments
actively involved in this
diapedesis
squeeze through capp
immediately reach site of infection
form pus
site of infection has pus
made of 3 things
(plasma - leucocytes) dead tissues, live or dead pathogens
dead leucocytes
specialise in phagocytosis
especially basophils
associated with inflammatory reactions
increase in production of histamine
any allergic reaction can be inflammatory
important signs -
localised redness
dilated blood vessels
swelling
odema
because of increased accumulation of tissue fluid
localised heat
acute localised pain
histamine causes the redness
ability to fight diseases /resist invasion by foreign
in 2 ways
phagocytosis
antibody production
can be for a lifetime
tissue fluid
description
blood is sticky connective tisseue with fluid matrix
cellular and non components
non cellular is plasma
cellular is in it
plasma - 55%
rbcs + polymorphonuclear - 44%
monunuclear - lymphocytes and monocytes - 1%
capp
when flowing through capps, made of single layer of specialised squamuos endethelium
not continuous
as it floes through, capps are permeable
permeable because of endothelium
when it encounter s agap, plasma has a tendency to leak out and fill the spaces between the cells
plasma leaks through gap
floods the spaces between the tissues - 16th of the body wiht spaces
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composition
mostly with wbcs, but no serum proteins
sources
2 imopratn
activity of issue itself
group of cells working for particular functio
metabolism
when cells is metabolically active
in respiration, important pathway called ETC
electron transport chain
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greater activity
more water produced
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capps
3 omportant factors which affect formation fm capps
permeability
greater, greater formation
more permeable
more leakage
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difference in pressure
difference wrt tissue fluid
as blood flows through capp
faces 2 opposing forces
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difference between colloidal osmotic pressure of blood and tissue fluid
pressure exerted because of solutes
urea, ions, electrolytes, respiratory gases
exerte
when hydrostatic is more then colloidal there will be filtration through capp walls
when hydro less than colloidal absorption
reabsorption
pressure max in arteries
min in veins
at arterial end, high hydro pressure, usually 32-35 mm
osmotic pressure is 25mm in capps - constant
at end of veins 10-15mm
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90% plasma
finds a way back at the venus end
goes out of venus end
hydro pressure is low
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this property can lead to a problem
when hydro is high - filtration
when filtration, accumulation of tissue fluid
condition called adema
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formation
filtration
absorption
functions
middleman between blood in capps and cells
anything that cells need to take fm blood, or
anything that cells need to give back to the blood
if cells need nutrients or oxygen
or give off waster resporatory gases back into blood
only through tissue fluid
any form of exchange
important to remain constant
because it is the immediate environment of cells
pH, metabolic wastes, gases
this tendencey is called homeostasis
this mechanish ensures that composition of tissue fluid doesn't change much
exchanges take place through tissue fluid,
transport of gases by blood
major role of cardio-vascular system
ensure transport of gases fm gas exchange surface of lungs to tissues in diff parts of human body
withough this, cells unable ti carry out aerobic respiration
98% of all gases transportd is transported by blood
gases are always in rbcs exist in combination with special protein called haemoglobin
haemoglobin
compact structure
quartenary structure
4 poolypeptide chains
2 less a.a - 141 - light chanis, alpha chains
2 heavy - 148 a.a - beta chains - h2l2
functions like one subunit
each has an important component called iron
ability to reversibly load and unload gases makes it special
presence of porphyrin ring
iron present
in chloro - mg central atom
each pp chain has a poyphyrin rign with iron in the centre
2 oxidation states
fe2+ - ferrous or fe
deoxy - iron is in fe2+ state
bluish purple colour
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when haemo binds to oxy
changes to fe3+ - ferric
reddish brown colour
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colour change because of oxidation states
scavenges oxygen like chloro scavenges sunlight
1 mol of haemo
4 iron atoms
can take up 4 moos of oxy
1 haemo can transport 8 atoms of oxygen
each atom of iron binding to 1 moleculaes of oxygen
binds reversibly
Hb +4O2 -> HbO8
called oxyhaemoglobin
cinding of oxygen to haemoglobin
factors that affect binding
4
partial pressure of oxy/ concentration of gases
partial pressure of carbon dioxide
affinity of haemoglobin to oxygen
temperature
oxygen carrying capacity
component
that in 100ml
calculate capacity, take into consideration
15mg haemoglobin in 100ml of blood
150mg in 1 litre
no molecula is 100 efficient
best - 97%
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variations in sickle cell anaemia, anaemia,
more haemo - more rbcs - polycythemia
adaptation for individuals to survive
20ml oxy per litre blood
2 phenomena
loading
oxygenation of haemoglobin
occurs in region where partial pressure of oxy is maximum
in alveoli
or arteries
tendency of haemoglibin is high
affinity of haemogin depends on partl pressure of lungs
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because oxy conc is high and co2 low
oxyhaemoglobin will dissociate to release oxygen and reduce haemoglobin
deoxygenation
usually close to tissues
actively respiring tissues
conc of co2 is high, oxy con is low
so hb binds with co2, all the oxy it hels is now released
but cells are possessive of oxygen
amt of oxygen released by 1 litre of normal blood it 4.6ml
under normal conditions
out of 4.6 - 4.4 is fm Hb,
remaining 0.2 comes fm blood plasma
source of oxygen
Hb, lesser source is plasma etc
arterial blood hb is 97% saturated
case of venus blood - 75% saturated with oxygen
20 ml blood in venus
away fm tissues - max saturation is 97%
venus blood is 75%
20ml coming through capps
oxy carries away - 15.5ml at the venus end
the 4.5 was taken by the cells
hb unloads approx 4.6ml per litre blood
4.4 fm the hb
0.17ml comes fm blood plasma
Haemoglobin behaviour
scientists extracted identical samples
exposed to diff conc of oxygen
after, calculated amt of oxygen taken up
on percentile basis
max is taken as 100%
max saturation - 100% (even though it was 97% actually)
others calculated as fraction of the 100%
high and low pressure, to same haemoglobin, sp it gets diff saturation
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dissociation curve
inference
when pp low, saturation is also low
when high, it is high
when low pp of oxygen, curve is very steep
when pp low, for evey small change in pp, saturation rises steeply
add more, it is all taken up
steepness
when pp low, curve is very steep,
for small increments, rises steeply
go higher,
curve plateaus
after particular point, if you increase conc, it doesn't make a difference
becomes independent of pp
eg in alveoli
when near tissues - more co2, less o2,
conc/pp of oxygen is low, to hb is unsaturated, and takes up carbon dioxide
whichever. gas is present in high conc
in actively respiring tissue, oxy pp is lowest
muscles rapidly respire, regions around have low conc of oxygen
leat saturation of hb is seen near actively respiring -
when it is at 20-25%
95-97%
in alveoli - lots of conc of oxygen
80 mm mercury
beyond pp of oxygen at 80mm, the curve will plateau
but at 50mm, for every small increment, it will steeply rise
50mm or below
shape of O2 dissociation curve
gives us an idea of the manner in which O2 binds to molecule
characteristic binding of oxy molecule to hb molecule has a sigmoid/ s shaped
sequence
hb is compact - stable and difficult to break
why slow initially?
for 1st mol to bind to fe, it requires a lot of energy
difficult for ist to attach
easier for 2 nd and 3rd
saturation is difficult to achieve
3d shape is distortes by 1st one, so easier for others to join
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binding dificult for 1st
2nd and 3rd easier
4th difficult since many spaces akready taken up
Hb+o2->hbo2
........
hbo6 + o2 -> hbo8
summary
pp of oxy and co2 is important
behaviour depends on pps
high pp - greater tendency to bind to oxygen
same for co2
this property to bind reversibly makes it a very remarkable pigment that is capable of transporting oxygen.
plotted in kPa on dissociation curve
factors affecting dissociation curve
pp of oxygen
when high, oxyhaemoglobin - high affinity, so it can't dossociate easily
pp of co2
when high
dissociates faster
greater afffinity for co2 xD
ability of oxyhb to give off o2 is high
pH
when is it high - alkaline
ability to dissociate is low
when oxyhb won't dissociate easily - conditions are alkaline
when blood becomes acidic - low ph
can break the bond between oxy and hb
blood is usually at 7.3
temperature
when high, break bonds easily
oxyhb dissociates faster
conditions when oxyhb must remain as oxyhb
pp of oxy high
pp of co2 low
ph alkaline
low temperature
chloride shift
immediate environment of cells
high conc gradient of co2
goes into the bh
co2+plasms - weak carbonic acid forms
catalysed by enzyme - carbonic anhydrase - zinc - co factor
dissociates easily - h ions and carbonate ions form
Co2 + h2o -carbonic anhydrase> h2co3
h2co3 -><- h+ + hco3-
conc of bicarbonate in hb increases
in plasma, low conc of hco3
bicarbonates move fm erythrocytes to the plasm
has a negative change,
net negative charge lost
counter effect mechanish
chlorides move fm the plasma into the rbcs, to make up for the negative charge lost
this phenomenon is called the chloride shift
Hamburger's phenomenon
to make sure there's no accumulation of positive charge - otherwise it woul acidic
prevents significant drop in the pH
membrane is permeable to hco3- but not h+
cl comes in just to replace the negative charge lost by hco3=
not related to acidic or anything
HHb
h is positive
hb is negative
h can bind to hb, hb can mop up excess h ions
haemoglobinic acid/ acid hb
this can also prevent a drop in the pH
hb acid acts as a buffer
hb binds to h+ and forms an acid
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acid hb releases a small amount of oxygen
so it can combine with the hydrogen ions
because of chloride shift, conditions could get too acidic because HCl is forming
so H+ goes to combine with Hb before it can get too acidic by combining with Cl-
Bohr Effect
affinity of hb to o2 depends no the pp of oxygen and also depends on pp of co2
this is called the bohr effect
when high pp of co2 causes the dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin is called the bohr effect.
only talks about carbon dioxide
only happens in tissues
releasing oxygen and taking in carbon dioxide
the phenomenon by whcih the high pp of co2 causes the increased dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin to give off oxygen and combine with carbon dioxide
independent of the chloride shift and HHb
high conc of h+ happens when co2 has to be bound to hb
happens when high pp of co2 and less pp of oxygen
Borh Shift
Hb can exist in 2 structural forms
depending on amt of energy involved in for any interactions
no of interactions possible betweeen subunits of Hb
R form/ state (relaxed)
high affinity hb for oxygen
hb in combination with oxygen
most stable state/ very happy and relaxed
when pp of o2 is high, pp of co2 is low
pH is high - alkaline
temperature is low
exists in the r state
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affinity to deliver (let go of oxy) is low
but binding capacity is high (not letting go of oxygen)
T form/state (top/tension)
undergoes dissociation
high pp of co2 and low pp of oxygen
pp of oxy is low
pp of co2 is high
binding to oxy low
delivering of o2 is high
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Bohr effect happens here
phenomenon wherin curve can move to right or left based on pps of co2 or oxygen
is called the Bohr Shift
when equal - no net movement
sources, factors, formation, oedema, function, homeostasis
describe the graph - haven't explained yet.
doubt - 5.5 million per mm^3 blood?
doubt - where hemolysis happens?