Rule of law:

• the second 'twin pillar' of UK constitution
• Principle that the law applies to everyone, even those in gov't

Parliamentary government:

• there is a fusion of powers between executive and legislature
• Parliament provides gov't in the members of gov't are drawn from Parliament

Parliamentary sovereignty:

• principle that absolute, supreme and unrestricted power lies with Parliament
• No codified constitution for judges to use to challenge it, statue laws outrank other laws- Parliament can't bind its successors
• Idea has been challenged though, due to the wider use of referendums. Parliament is restricted by practical considerations and outside interests

Constitutional monarchy:

• monarchy in UK has no real political power, but remains in place because it is long-established and traditional
• monarch sits 'above; the gov't, but is merely a figurehead

• Lord Halisham coined the phrase 'elective dictatorship' in the 1970s. Only real check on gov't power is a general election every 5 years
• Even with small majorities, gov't are able to pass most of its legislation without amendments
• Major constitutional change has occurred without any opposition to it
• Example= introduction of fixed-term parliaments in 2011, and the devolving of more powers to devolved governments

Factors and arguments suggesting Parliament holds executive to account:

1. Parliament can defeat gov't by voting against legislation
2. Opposition to gov't policy may mean that a free vote is offered
3. Increased willingness of the Lords to challenge gov't bills due to lack of single-party control and removal of most hereditary peers
4. Select committees have increased in significance following decision to elect their chairs
5. PM must appear twice a year before the Liaison Committee, which is made up of the chairs of select committees
6. Debates can be held on issues. which can raise their profile or have an impact on executive action
7. Opposition parties are allocated 20 days to discuss issues not set by gov't

Factors and arguments suggesting Executive still has ability to dominate Parliament:

1. Defeats in Commons on gov't legislation is very rare- Tony Blair didn't lose a vote during first 8 years of his premiership
2. Party discipline and influence of whips ensures the majority of gov't bills are passed without difficulty
3. Gov't often has an extensive 'payroll vote' made up of ministers, junior ministers and parliamentary private secretaries
4. Parliament Act allows gov't to push through legislation that has been blocked by the Lords
5. A vote of confidence hasn't happened since 1979
6. The gov't has extensive powers under secondary legislation, allowing them to change laws

PM strengthened by:

1. can promote loyal colleagues and supporters, making cabinet more likely to support them
2. PM in effect controls the careers of ministers, which should ensure their loyalty

PM restrained by:

1. Ministers must come from HOC or HOL, so there is a limited number of people to choose from and ministers will come from majority party
2. must be a balance of interests and ideas, to avoid alienating sections of the party
3. particular groups must be represented e.g., females
4. may be better to have opponents in cabinet, so they are bound by collective responsibility

Cabinet management(strengthens PM):

1. control how often and how long the cabinet meets for, and sets agenda
2. control appointments to cabinet committees and chair most important ones
3. number of cabinet meetings and duration has declined with recent PMs
4. often meetings are just used for formal business, without meaningful debate
   Cabinet management(restrains PM):
5. if PM isn't successful, the cabinet will not support them
6. Cabinet resignations, especially senior one, can damage authority of PM

PM and cabinet office(give power to PM):

1. gives PM more staff working for them, helping them control and oversee policy process
2. use of special advisers has grown in recent years- are personally loyal to PM, rather than government or cabinet
   PM's power restricted
3. the bodies and advisors available to PM are considerably less than those available to US President

Committee stage: the bill is considered in detail by a public bill committee. Some bills may be considered by whole chamber. Amendments can be made at this stage.

Report stage: the committee reports its findings, and any amendments, to Commons, can amend or reverse any changes

Second reading: a full debate takes place considering the details of the bill, which can be defeated at this stage

Third reading: this is another full debate of the bill, but no amendments can be made. Usually bills will be passed at this stage

First reading: the bill is introduced to Parliament, with no debate or voting

The second chamber: once passed by Commons, the same process takes pace in HOL. Sometimes bills may start in Lords before going to Commons

Initial stage: 'Draft Bills' are issued for consultation before being formally introduced to Parliaments. Allows proposed changes and amendments to made before the Bill's formal introduction. The consultation process on these bills involve gov't issuing a paper for public considerations

Royal Assent: once passed by both chambers, the bill is given to the monarch to grant Royal Assent. Once this happens, the bill becomes law

How Commons and Lords interact during the passing of laws:

• Lords are able to propose amendments for consideration by Commons. Commons can adapt these amendments or reject them
• Lords can then argue against the rejection. This can start a process of 'ping-pong', where a bill goes back and forth between the two chambers
• The Lords will generally accept the bill eventually but can delay it by up to a year
• If there is a division, the Commons take priority, as it is democratically legitimate
• Exceptions are bills outlined in government's manifesto and money bills, which will not generally be delayed by the Lords
• An exception when Lords voted to delay proposed gov't cuts to tax credits in 2015

Constitution= a set of rules for governing a government- the purpose of a constitution is to prevent a gov't from becoming over-powerful

Types of Constitutions

• Codified: written down in one place, constitutional laws are entrenched- they have a higher status than other laws
• Uncodified: made up of several sources- some written, some not. Constitutional laws have same status as any other laws
  -Entrenched: protected by a 'higher court', needing special procedures to amend it
• Unentrenched: laws relating to constitution have same status as any other laws, can be amended easily
• Unitary: power is concentrated within a single body
• Federal: power shared between institutions
• Rigid: constitution relatively difficult to amend or change
• Flexible: constitution is quite easily amended/changed

Key Documents
Magna Carta, 1215: signed by King John, the 'Great Charter' was a series of written promises between the king nd his subjects. King agrees to govern England and deal with its people according to customs of feudal system.#
Bill of Rights, 1689: guaranteed further basic rights e.g., free elections, and laid out both rights of Parliament and limitations on power of Monarch. Includes no right to taxation without Parliament's agreement
Parliament Acts,1911,1949: removed HOL the power to veto a bill instead Lords could delay a bill up to 1 year. The Parliament Acts define the powers of the Lords in relation to public bills. The Lords can't amend money bills