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01 THE 18TH CENTURY: THE ENLIGHTENMENT, DESPOTISM AND PARLIAMENTARIANISM -…
01 THE 18TH CENTURY: THE ENLIGHTENMENT, DESPOTISM AND PARLIAMENTARIANISM
01 THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES
1 THE ANTHROPOCENTRIC CULTURE IN THE MODERN AGE
Economic and social progress were not the only advances made in Europe in the Modern Age. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, thought and culture underwent a process of constant change.
Humanism was the first cultural movement to develop an anthropocentric worldview, compared to medieval Christian thought. Human beings, their intelligence and their love of knowledge were some of the main concerns of humanists
The importance of humanism grew with the invention of the movable-type printing press, which allowed ideas to spread more quickly than they had before
2 THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Modern science emerged during these centuries. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated his heliocentric theory, which refuted the geocentric theory
These scientists laid the foundations of the scientific method, a research method based on observation and experimentation
Empiricism claimed that we should not accept reasoning that could not be empirically validated through observation and experimentation. The Englishman Francis Bacon was its main representative.
Rationalism stated that the truths established by authority and tradition should be criticised, and that reason was the only valid criterion. The Frenchman René Descartes was its main representative.
02 THE ENLIGHTENMENT: THE CULTURE OF OPTIMISM
1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The scientific and intellectual advances that took place during the European Modern Age were not accepted by everybody. On many occasions there was resistance from political and religious powers
intellectual movement appeared among the educated elites of the 18th century that would develop until the end of the century, the Enlightenment. This was a European phenomenon with France as its main epicentre
It was an optimistic intellectual movement that expressed hope in the future through different ideas:
Reason was understood as human rationality that could illuminate the darkness and society’s errors. Reason was the way to overcome biased notions and religious dogmas.
Progress was thought of as the development of knowledge so that civilisation could control nature and create well-being and wealth.
Happiness was considered an individual right and a societal aspiration that leaders were obligated to provide.
2 THE EVOLUTION OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Enlightenment was mostly a reformist movement; it defended its aims through reforms of politics, society, the economy and culture
They placed a lot of importance on education and pedagogy. Enlightenment thinkers supported extending education to the people and ensuring that the Church did not monopolise it
The development of the Enlightenment caused the Church and absolutism to lose part of their influence, and there was a more critical intellectual attitude. It also encouraged certain improvements
As these were important achievements, some Enlightenment thinkers understood that they were insufficient to achieve the triumph of reason, progress and happiness, so a more radical critique of the political and social system emerged
MONTESQUIEU (1689–1755)
He proposed a moderate monarchy with separation of the executive, legislative and judicial powers.
VOLTAIRE (1694–1778)
Although he was in favour of enlightened despotism, he fought for civil rights and judicial reform.
ROUSSEAU (1712–1778)
Rousseau was from a middle-class background. He proposed a model of society where sovereignty was in the hands of the people and not of the king.
3 THE SPREAD OF ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS
The new Enlightenment ideas were printed in the press and in books. Above all, they were spread by the Encyclopédie, the most important book of the Age of Enlightenment. Edited by French Enlightenment thinkers Diderot and D’Alembert, the 28 volumes of the Encyclopédie were published between 1751 and 1772
At the end of the 18th century, newspapers were published daily, weekly and on Sundays. The first Spanish newspaper was Diario noticioso
Enlightenment ideas were not spread where social life had formerly taken place, in churches, families and guilds. They were spread by word of mouth in gatherings of the nobility and upper middle class, in coffee houses, taverns and salons
Reading societies were also established. These acted as the first public libraries from which books could be borrowed. The number of books published therefore increased significantly during the Age of Enlightenment
Scientists and intellectuals gathered in academies, where lectures were given, scientific and literary works were read and, above all, practical work was carried out: topographical, agricultural and climate studies
4 WOMEN IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT
SALONS: MARIE-THÉRÈSE RODET
The Enlightenment promoted the exchange of ideas for the progress of knowledge. From an early age, Marie-Thérèse Rodet (1699–1777) attended the literary salons of Paris. Eventually, Marie-Thérèse Rodet became famous for starting her own salon
SCIENCE, LITERATURE AND ART
MARÍA GAETANA AGNESI (1718–1799)
MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759–1797)
ÉMILIE DU CHÂTELET (1706–1749)
05 PARLIAMENTARIANISM AND ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM
1 ABSOLUTISM AND PARLIAMENTARIANISM
The 18th century marks the end of the Modern Age and the beginning of the Contemporary Age. From a political point of view, absolute monarchies and parliamentary monarchies
ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES
Absolute monarchies were legitimised by an ideology that supported the superiority of the king’s power over all others: the nobility, the clergy, parliaments, guilds, etc.
PARLIAMENTARY MONARCHIES
Parliamentary monarchies developed institutional and legal systems that controlled the monarch’s power through the action of the courts and parliaments made up of major landowners, local corporations and the wealthy classes.
PARLIAMENTARY REPUBLICAN POLITICAL SYSTEMS
Parliamentary republican political systems remained in place in some parts of Europe. They were governed by members of the nobility and wealthy middle class elected by local assemblies
2 ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM
Enlightened despotism was a variant of absolutism that incorporated ‘trickledown’ reforms inspired by the Enlightenment. However, these reforms did not decrease the absolute power of the monarchs.
ADDITIONAL REFORMS
Political reforms
Regalist reforms
Economic reforms
06 SPAIN: THE BOURBON REFORMS AND THEIR LIMITS
1 THE WAR OF SUCCESSION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
When Carlos II of Habsburg died without children, there were two pretenders to the throne: the emperor’s son Carlos of Habsburg, archduke of Austria, and Prince Felipe of Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV of France. Carlos II chose the Bourbon prince as his heir. Felipe V was sworn in as king of the monarchy’s different kingdoms between 1701 and 1702
TERRITORIAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE TREATIES OF UTRECHT AND RASTATT
The civil war lasted until 1715. Felipe V punished the territories of the Crown of Aragón as he believed they had betrayed him, and he invoked the right of conquest. He used the Nueva Planta decrees
2 POLITICAL REFORMS
The Spanish Bourbons imposed a model of absolute monarchy inspired by the French absolutist system. In the middle of the 18th century, it began evolving towards the model of enlightened despotism
The old Habsburg model of government, with councils and validos acting as prime ministers, was replaced by cabinets
3 FOREIGN POLICY
The dynastic affinity with the French Bourbons and the Atlantic expansion of Great Britain, in addition to the British claims on the American dominions of the Hispanic Monarchy, led the Spanish kings to ally themselves with France in what are known as ‘Family Compacts’, and to take part in the Seven Years’ War