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Reading Development - Y2 - Coggle Diagram
Reading Development - Y2
What is reading?
Purpose of reading is to understand - reading has to be explicitly taught and allows us to share information across time and language
- It is a vital skill
- The Simple View (Gough & Turner, 1986) -
-> Reading - decoding and linguistic comprehension (R = D x C)
-> They describe reading as the product of decoding and comprehension
The task of reading -
- Mapping printed words onto spoken words
- Phoneme - smallest unit of sound that can alter meaning, such as through a change in /b/ to /d/
- Grapheme - basic unit of written language; a letter or combination of letters that corresponds to a phoneme e.g. 'a' or 'sh'
-> Make a connection between letters on the page (graphemes) and sounds of the language (phonemes)
-> Blend them together to form a word
-> Access meaning from mental lexicon (semantics)
--> Triangle model - Siedenberg and McClelland, 1989; Plaut et al, 1996
Phases of word reading - Ehri, 1995:
- Pre-alphabetic -
- Little to no knowledge of the alphabet
- Some knowledge of environmental print
- Use of visual cues
- Partial alphabetic phase -
- Some letter names / sounds
- Use phonological cues to read taught words
- Full alphabetic phase -
- Full knowledge of the alphabet
- Connections between graphemes and phonemes
- Predict from context, analogy and decoding
- Start acquiring sight word vocabulary (familiar words)
- Consolidated alphabetic phase
- Common letter strings learnt as units
- Predict from context, analogy, decoding and sight
- Fast and efficient access to pronunciations and meanings from printed words
Phoneme or rhyme (Walley, 1993):
- Global (whole word) --> vocab development, competition -> lexical restructuring --> Segmental (phoneme)
- In alphabetical languages, letters usually map to phonemes
- Measures of rhyming ability predict reading (Bradley & Bryant, 1983; Goswami & Bryant, 1990)
-> Onset (start of word) / Rime (correspondence in the sounds of two or more lines)
-> Children can make orthographic analogies
-> Phoneme awareness develops as a consequence of awareness of onsets and as a result learning to read
- But, Muter et al (2004) showed that phoneme awareness rather than rime awareness predicts reading
- CC2 reading test (Castles & Coltheart, 2009) - require prior knowledge to pronounce word
Problem with words - different word types:
- Regular - can be decoded using grapheme-phoneme conversion rules and serial / sequential processing
- Irregular or exception words - do not follow GPC rules, and frequency of the word predicts accuracy and RT
- Other words are ambigious in meaning or sound - homophones and homographs
Phenomenon of skilled reading - factors affecting speed / accuracy:
- Frequency (Forster & Chambers, 1973)
- AOA (age of acquisition - Carrol & White, 1973)
- Regularity (Stanovich & Bauer, 1978; Seidenberg et al, 1984) - interaction with frequency
- Consistency (Glushko, 1979) - sound pattern typically produced in a consistent way
- Semantically related prime (Moss et al, 1995) and congruent context (Stanovich & West, 1981)
-> Low frequency, irregular words take longer to read than high frequency of either, and regular words take less time in low frequency words compared to low frequency irregular words
Models of reading
Dual Route Cascade Model (DRC) - Coltheart, 2001:
- Two routes to reading words - letters activate both routes
-> Word = localised unit / representation
- Pronunciation depends on which route wins the race
- Non-lexical route = grapheme-phoneme correspondences; regularisation errors
-> Feature level -> letter level -> non-lexical route -> phoneme system
- Lexical routes
-> Letter level -> orthographic input lexicon -> semantic system -> phonological output lexicon -> phoneme system
-> If we know words, we tend to use the lexical route, as we activate semantic knowledge and phonological output lexicon
-> However, non-lexical route is used for unfamiliar routes which lead to regulation errors
Triangle model - Seidenberg & McClelland (1989); Plaut et al (1996) - computational model
- Word = distributed pattern of activation over many units (not a localised unit)
- Context -> semantics <-> orthography <-> phonology <-> semantics
Genetics of reading -
- High heritability of reading ability - Hart, Little & van Bergen (2021); lot of heritability in MZ twins, but there is still some variability
-> Genes / heritability
-> Shared environment
-> Non-shared environment / error
- However, there is a genetic confound of environmental influences
-> Shared genes -> genetic confound -> child's reading ability
-> Shared genes -> parents reading ability -> number of books -> environmental effects -> child's reading ability
Reading disorders
Spectrum of reading disorders (Bishop & Snowling, 2004) -
- Phonology + oral language grid
-> High phonology + high oral language = normal reader
-> High phonology + low oral language = poor comprehender
-> Good decoding, poor reading comprehension (7-10% - Clarke et al, 2010; Nation et al, 2010)
-> Low phonology + low oral language = language impairment
-> Low phonology + high oral language = dyslexia (3-6% - Hulme & Snowling, 2009) - poor reading and spelling skills, along with difficulties in phonological processing (Rose, 2009)
Dyslexia - a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling (Rose, 2009):
- Below age expectations
- Difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed
- Occurs across the range of intellectual abilities
- Continnum not distinct category
- Co-occurring difficulties can affect language, motor co-ordination, maths, concentration, organisation
- Response to intervention as indicator of severity and persistence
Phonological deficit hypothesis - Snowling & Hulme, 1994; Velluntino, 2004:
- Phonological representations - difficulties with the following tasks as a result - verbal STM, naming (RAN), nonword repetition, phoneme awareness and new word learning (PAL)
- Children with dyslexia have a primary deficit in mapping the sounds of language (phonology) to written letters (orthography) - Snowling, 1987
- Difficulty acquiring alphabetic principle (LSK; Bryne, 1998)
-> DYS < age matched controls
-> DYS < reading age controls
--> Controls for reading experience
Causation -
- Could be that; phonological skills -> reading skills
- Could be that reading skills -> phonological skills
- Or; X -> reading or phonological skills
- Need to demonstrate that phonological deficits are evident prior to reading instruction
-> Family risk studies -
--> Assess skills of children at high risk of dyslexia prior to reading instruction (Scarborough, 1990; Snowling, Gallagher & Frith, 2003)
--> Continuum of risk - those with dyslexia lowest; then those at risk who become normal readers and control readers are the highest
-> Thompson (2015) - reading problems at 8 years; 26% FR/DLD; 40% FR + DLD
-> Preschool predictors - FR status, LSK, PA, RAN, and EF skills
-> School age predictors - language
- Longitudinal study (e.g. Muter et al, 2004)
- Intervention studies (experiments)
Risk factors - other than phonological deficits:
- Motor difficulties
- Phonological processing difficulties
- Auditory difficulties
- Wider oral language difficulties
- Visual processing difficulties
- Is the prevalence of phonological processing difficulties higher than that of other - is it a good cognitive marker (White et al, 2006)
Multiple risk factors - Pennington (2006) multiple deficit model:
- Not a single cause
- Probabilistic rather than deterministic
- Frequent comorbidity rather than independent disorders
- Level of analysis - van Bergen et al, 2014
-> Aetiological risk and protective factors
-> Neural systems
-> Cognitive processes
-> Behavioural disorders
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Why theories about developmental dyslexia require developmental designs (Goswami, 2003)
- The lowest level of impairment should be identified as early as possible, and developmental effects on higher-level cognition examined longitudinally
- A number of recent studies proposing candidate low-level impairments have not used this design
- Only a phonological deficit arising from low-level auditory processing problems meets the criteria for this approach
-> Normal variation in postulated causal factors is ignored, inadequate control groups are used, and the nature and timing of environmental inputs are not measured, even though reading is taught systematically, and both reading acquisition and dyslexia vary with orthography
-> That is why the other studies fail to explain developmental dyslexia
Developmental dyslexia - predicting individual risk (Thompson et al, 2015):
- Causal theories suggest it is a heritable disorder, as the outcome of multiple risk factors - however, early screening is not very investigated
- Dyslexia is the outcome of multiple risk factors with language difficulties at school entry are at high risk - family history of dyslexia is a predictor of literacy outcome in preschool years
- However, screening does not reach an acceptable clinical level until close to school entry when letter knowledge, phonological awareness and RAN, rather than family risk, together provide good sensitivity and specificity as a screening battery
Sensitivity specificity - Thompson et al, 2015:
- Three main concepts when assessing the accuracy of a screening tool -
- Sensitivity - proportion of True Positives (TP)
- This is the proportion of those classified using the gold standard reading and spelling assessments as having a reading difficulty, that are also identified by the screening tool as being at risk of a reading difficulty
- Specificity - proportion of True Negatives (TN)
- This is the proportion of those classified as not having a reading difficulty and identified as this by the screening tool as not being at risk
- AUC - area under the curve
- This is calculated using the sensitivity and specificity values to summarise the likelihood of correct diagnosis (values all range from 0 = not accurate, to 1 = complete accuracy) - the AUC values can be used to judge the acceptability of the accuracy of the screening tool
- A value of 0.7 or higher is considered acceptable (Hosmer et al, 2013)
The role of sensorimotor impairments in dyslexia - a multiple case study of dyslexic children (White et al, 2006):
- 23 children with dyslexia compared 22 controls, matched on age and non-verbal intelligence on tasks assessing literacy as well as phonological, visual, auditory and motor abilities
- Dyslexic group as a whole were significantly impaired on phonological but not sensorimotor tasks
- Analysis of individual data suggests the most common impairments were on phonological and visual stress tasks and the vast majority of dyslexics had one of the two impairments
- Phonological skill was able to account for variation in literacy skills, to the exclusion of all sensorimotor factors, with neither auditory nor motor skill predicting variance in phonological skill - visual stress seems to account for a small proportion of dyslexics, independently of the commonly reported phonological deficit
- Little evidence for the causal role of auditory, motor or other visual impairments
Reading disorders revisited - the critical importance of oral language (Snowling & Hulme, 2021):
- Reading disorders are highly heritable and highly comorbid with disorders of language, attention, and other learning disorders, mainly mathematical disorders
- Home literacy environment, reflecting the gene-environment correlation, is one of several factors that promote reading development and highlights an important target for intervention
- Multiple deficit view of dyslexia suggests that risks accumulate to a diagnostic threshold, although categorical diagnoses tend to be unstable