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Key Topic 5: Cotton Mather and the Salem witch-hunt 1692-93 - Coggle…
Key Topic 5: Cotton Mather and the Salem witch-hunt 1692-93
The social, economic, and political context of Salem: weakened authority following the 1688 Revolution; Indian threats and economic crisis; social tensions
Weakened authority following the 1688 Revolution
England in the c17th
Chales I
Pursuing high church policies and punishing radicals in the Star Chamber
1630s were a difficult time for Puritans
Antagonised parliament
English Civil War
Charles II
Restored the English monarchy after 1649-1660 of no king
James II
Took over 1685
Catholic king
1687 issued a Declaration of Indulgence in England, suspending existing penal laws against Catholics
Unpopular move
He then dissolved parliament
Increased opposition from the political establishment
The Glorious Revolution
1688: 7 bishops refused to read another Declaration of Indulgence
Arrested
Aquitted
Public rejoicing
Fear of a Catholic heir when James' wife fell pregnant
7 leading figures from the political nation sent an invitation to William of Orange to bring force against James
William of Orange arrived in December 1688
James II fled
Convention parliament established in January 1689
Declared William would rule with Mary (Protestant daughter of James)
They were presented with a Declaration of Rights
Affirmed a number of constitutional principles
Eg. prohibition of unparliamentary taxation
Eg. the need for regular parliaments
James attempted to amass a force in Ireland to take back the throne
William led an army against James at the Battle of Boyne 1690
William's forces victorious
Political context: governing Massachusetts
Puritans
1630s was a hard time for Puritans in England
10,000 Puritans migrated to Massachusetts
Religious tensions
Massacchusetts' government was dominated by Puritans
Colony became resistant to Charles II's attempts to allow the Church of England to be established
Economy in the 1640s and 50s
Became stronger
Increasingly successful trade in fur and lumber
Flourishing fishing industry
Led to growth of merchant class
Charles II's efforts to extend royal influence over his colonies in the 1670s and 80s
Attempts to revoke the royal charter in 1678 and 1681
Attempts to consolidate all New England colonies into one
In order to centralise control
Resistance from Puritan authorities
A charter was not formally annulled until 1684
How did Charles II administer New England territories?
Dominion of New England
Governed by Sir Edmund Andros
Experienced soldier
Bailiff of Guarnsey
Unpoopular
High church tendencies
Unwillingness to include well-established local Puritans on his council
Andros' fall
Attempted to fulfil the late Charles II's wish for Church of England services to be delivered in Puritan churches
Introduced new taxes
1 more item...
All landownership titles issued under the new Massachusetts Bay Colony were declared void
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Restricted the number of town meetings that could be held
Impact of the Glorious Revolution on Massachusetts
Causes of the revolt against Governor Andros
Resentment over James II and his agents
News of the Revolution reached Massachusetts in April 1689
Role of Increase Mather
Suited to lead negotiation in England over a new charter
Spent 1688-92 in London on behalf of the colony
Consequences of the revolt in terms of how Massachusetts was governed
King William was fearful that Massachusetts could once again fall into a religious rule
So he enforced the following......
All officials were to be appointed by the Crown rather than elected
Voting eligibility was now based on property ownership rather than religious denomination
The governor could block any laws passed by the council
Why did weakened authority make a witch-hunt more likely?
Less representation from Puritan leaders
Problems/ disputes in the community could not be settled as easily
Lack of legal authority
As things started to go wrong, the Puritan-majority population saw the Devil at work.
Indian threats and economic crisis
Indian threats
Fear of Indian attacks fostered a deep-seated paranoia in Salem
Intensified in c17th, especially in Salem
Attacks were common and colonists were killed
Salem
After overthrow of Andros, colonial defences were weakened and fewer troops were available
The young girls who gave evidence in the trials would have known victims of Indian attacks
Salem trials coincided with King William's War
Second Indian War
Part of the wider Nine Years' War 1688-97 that William of Orange was fighting against France
Both sides made alliances with Indian tribes
In the Puritan mind-set, the Indians were Devil-worshippers
Fear of Indian attacks fostered a deep-seated paranoia concerning God's willingness to allow the Devil's agents to punish Puritan settlers
Economic crisis
First Indian War
Left the economy of Massachusetts ruined
Half of New England's towns attacked
Springfield burnt
Tax burden under Sir Edmund Andros
Series of Navigation Acts hampered economic fortunes of the colony
First one wad passed in 1651
Goods imported to England and its territories had to be carried on English ships
To remove the Dutch monopoly on trade across Northern Europe and North America
Required all crews of English shops had to be at least half English by nationality
Heightened sense of fear
Existing uncertainty
Economic crisis was just another factor contributing to the underlying feeling of fear
Social tensions
(and religious)
Religious tensions/ Puritans
Massachusetts governed s a theocray
Puritan settlers saw themselves as God's chosen people and were concerned with seeing signs of God's approval/ presence of the Devil
Interpreted crop failures/ illness/ fires/ hallucinations as the work of the Devil
Anyone who did not conform to the Puritan ideal was treated with suspicion
Women accused more than men
Women inferior to men
Eve set precedent for women to be more easily tempted by the Devil
Class
Population of 600 between Salem Town and Salem Village
Salem Village
Largely agricultural
Made up of well-established/ staunch Puritans
Majority of the accusers came from here
Least likely to be accused
Those from the area closest to the main Ipswich Road
Those from Salem Town
Because they had more contact with the outside world and were less reliant on agriculture/ driven by religious beliefs
Resistance to attempts of Salem Village to gain independence from Salem Town
The Town relied on the agricultural produce of the Village
Conflict between the two groups was based on differing visions of how the communities should be run
Emerging merchants were concerned with private interests
Old-fashioned/ agrarian-based/ Puritan group was more concerned with public goodwill
Putnam family of Salem Village
Heavily involved in accusations
Leaders of the movements towards separation
Opposed by the Porters
One of the most prominent families in Salem Village
Porter family of Salem
Richest family in Salem
Number of business interests in Salem Town and New England
Made an attempt to stop the witch craze
Many of their allies soon came under suspicion
The influence of Cotton Mather, including 'Memorable Providences relating to Witchcraft and Possessions'; instigators, including the roles of Samuel Parris, children and Tituba; the nature of the victims; the trials and executions
The influence of Cotton Mather, including 'Memorable Providences relating to Witchcraft and Possessions'
Cotton Mather and his father, Increase Mather, were two of the most senior Puritan clergymen in Massachusetts
Convincing when preaching about the danger of witches
Able to give real-life examples of his own contact with witches/ those who had been bewitched
Comprehensive religious training enables him ro write extensively and he became an authority on Puritanism in the colonies
'Memorable Providences relating to Witchcraft and Possessions' 1689
Acted as an inspiration/ a guide to those who conducted the Salem hunt/ trials
Two sections
An extensive account of the so-called Goodwin posessions
Influenced the possessions of Salem
A sermon delivered by Mather and reprinted
Warning against the presence of witches
Offering advice on how to detect witches
Role in the Goodwin posessions
Mather notes the linen was used for witchcraft
Mather notes even her husband complained she was a witch
Dedicates a significant portion of his book to descriptions of Martha's fits
Depicts her possessions
Interviewed her in person after her arresr
Tried to exercise her in his name
Well-respected
Harvard aged 15
Pastor from 1685
Writes
Instigators, including the roles of Samuel Parris, children and Tituba
Samuel Parris
Puritan minister
Had attempted to increase his salary and benefits
Immediately faced problems with his congregation and as an outsider, found it hard to settle their disputes
Shortly before the witcch-hunt, the town had refused to pay his wages after he purchased unnecessary items for the Puritan meeting house
Parris' preaching also had an impact on widening the divisions which already existed in Salem
He delivered a sermon claiming the church was under siege by the Devil and wicked men (most likely his opponents)
Acted as a key witness in trials
His motivations for instigating the trials have never been fully understood
The children
1691
Parris' daughter, Elizabeth, and niece, Abigail Williams, began to experiment with fortune telling, using a 'venus glass'
It was reported that on one occasion, the Venus glass revealed the shape of a coffin after which the supernatural events began
January 1692
Elizabeth forgot prayers
She barked like a dog
Screamed at certain prayers
Threw a Bible
Began having fits
Her father's prayers would not help
Abigail also began to exhibit strange behaviour
Doctor Griggs blamed witchcraft and recommended prayer and fasting
Other children involved in the acusations
Ann Putham
Claimed she was possesed
Began showing similar symptoms as Elizabeth and Abigail (March 1692)
Her name was mentioned 400+ times in the courts' documents
Mary Walcott
One of the first to suffer fits
Remained clam throughout
Mercy Lewis
Accused 8 people and gave evidence against them
Elizabeth Hubbard
Testified against 29 people
17 of which were arrested
13 hanged
2 died in jail
Fits in the courtroom
Fell into trances, unable to talk
Tituba
Servant/slave of the Parrises
Asked to make a cake from the girls' urine
In order to counter the possessions
Did not work
Samuel became suspicious and filed charges
Caribbean and African herritage
Voodoo
Some historians question whether she was Native American
Confessed quickly to a pact with the Devil
Named other witches
Recalled that the Devil was a white man dressed in black who made her sign his book
Claimed she had flown through the air using a pole
Claimed the other witches changed into animals
Governor Phips
Baptised in Cotton Mather's church in 1689
Began taking religion much more seriously than before
Sudden conversion may have been to gain favour with the influential Mather family
Deeply influenced by the Mather's interest in witchcraft
London
Worked with Incease Mather to renew Massachusetts Bay Colony charter
Mather used his influence to place Phips in the post of Governor under the new charter
Supported the accusations at first
Appointed Staughton as chief judge of the trials
Quickly he regretted this
Closed down the court of Oyer and Terminer (26th October 1692)
Released those still under investigation
The nature of the victims
20% men
Many of these men had connections to accused women
The first three women to be accused
Sarah Osborne
Well established widow with a relatively high social standing
Behaviour fell short of what was expected in Salem society
Lived unmarried with an Irish indentured servant
Sarah Good
Social outcast
Came from a well-off family, but was made destitute after making poor investments and not marrying into money
Homeless/ beggar
Tituba
Caribbean/African heritage
Servant/slave of the Parrises
Social outcasts/ low-social standing
Other witches accused
Bridget Bishop
Independent woman
Wore clothes that Puritans disapproved of
Martha Carrier
Independent woman
Unsubmissive
Contentious spirit
Rebecca Nurse
Older
Well-respected member of the commmunity
Susannah Martin
67 year old widow
The trials and executions
The trials
Meeting called at the village meeting house
Where the possessed girls gave evidence against the women
Initial meeting and the rest of the trials were defined by their use of spectral evidence, which was convincing at first
As more people became accused, some started to confess
At the Salem trials. a confession improved the chances of a suspect
More than 50 of those who confessed were ultimately freed
165 accused
39 ended up facing serious charges
May: Phips established Court of Oyer and Terminer
To hear the cases
One of the judges resigned within a month when he became suspicious about the legitimacy of the proceedings
Convictions were easily made for a number of reasons
Spectral evidence
Accused had little defense
Petitions generally ignored
Gossip was accepted evidence
The executions
10th June 1692
Bridget Bishop was first to be hanged
19th July 1692
Rebecca Nurse
Sarah Good
16th September 1692
Giles Corey tortured by pressing
22nd September 1692
Giles Corey's wife and daughter hanged
By this date, 19 had been hanged, and 1 tortured to death
19th August 1692
Reverend George Burroughs hanged with several others
Reasons for the ending of the witch hunt: the roles of Cotton Mather's father and Governor Phips; the general pardon
The roles of Cotton Mather's father and Governor Phips
Cotton Mather's father, Increase Mather
A well-respected Puritan minister
'Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits Persecuting Men' (September 1692)
His sceptical work
Did not reject the notion of witchcraft
Used his extensive knowledge of scripture and of recent history to argue that genuine cases of witchcraft were true, and much of the evidence used at the trial was dubious
Made a number of sermons
Were supportive of the trials themselves
Deeply critical of the use of spectral evidence
Had such a wide following and was well respected across Massachusetts
Puritans began to heed his warnings
Number of accusations started to decrease
Governor Phips
Increase Mather had discussions with influential Massachusettiasn officials, including Phips
From a well-off family
Gained royal favour after an endeavour by James II in 1687
Returned to Boston from London where he met Increase Mather
Briefly acted as Marshal General to New England
Baptised in Cotton Mather's church in 1689
Began taking religion much more seriously than before
Sudden conversion may have been to gain favour with the influential Mather family
Deeply influenced by the Mather's interest in witchcraft
London
Worked with Incease Mather to renew Massachusetts Bay Colony charter
Mather used his influence to place Phips in the post of Governor under the new charter
Supported the accusations/trials at first
Ordered prisoners to be out in chains
Created the Court of Oyer and Terminer
Appointed William Staughton as chief judge of the trials
Regretted this decision quickly
Staughton was unrelenting in his pursuit of witches
Demanded spectral evidence be heard
Decided to close the Court of Oyer and Terminer (26th October 1692)
Influenced by his relationship with Increase Mather
Released those who were still under investigation
Those who had spent time in jail still had to find the money to cover their fees
September 1692
Governor Phips' wife was now implicated
List of the accused was growing still
Reverend Samuel Willard also implicated now
The general pardon
1693
Phips issued a general pardon
Excusing 8 people who Staughton had condemned to die
January
A new Superior Court of Juducature had been established in Salem
Led again by Staughton
He had changed his mind on witch and spectral evidence
BUT, political pressure on him to avoid convictions was immense
Phips ordered him to discount spectral evidence
First 5 prisoners to face trial
Had been held since the first wave of accusations
Found not guilty
Charges were dismissed against more prisoners
But, 3 were found guilty
Phips pardoned these 3 shortly after Staughton signed their death warrant
Court sat again at the end of the month
5 found not guilty
May 1693
Court met for a final time
5 people found not guilty
The sudden rush to find defendants innocent was probably directed, or at least heavily influenced by, Governor Phips
Why did the Salem witch trials end?
Role of Increase Mather
Literature
Increase Mather's' 1692 Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits Persecuting Men'
Role of Governor Phips and the General Pardon
Legal issues
Nature of the court charges
Spectral evidence
Accusations of high profile victims by September 1692
Extent of the loss of friends and family
Public confidence in the legality and legitimacy of the trials declines as the accused increased
Why did the Salem witch-craze become so widespread?
Deeply Puritan society
Fear of the Devil and witches was part of everyday life
Dangers could be found everywhere in the recently-settled New England
Magic/ witchcraft helped people explain what was going on around them
Indian threats
Heightened fear
Many girls who made the origional accusations had been personally affected by Indian attacks
Role of individuals
Cotton Mather
Role of Elizabeth Parris, Abigail Williams, Ann Putnam, and the other girls meant that the court had a large number of witnesses
Social divisions in Salem
Resentment and jealousy
Most accusers came from the less-wealthy, Puritan Salem Village
William Staughton's acceptance of spectral evidence
Dubious evidence was accepted