Trading Companies - The East India Company was created in 1600 and it had a monopoly to trade with Asia. Trade with Asia was helped when James Lancaster discovered a route to Asia around the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa) to Asia. The Spanish company was created and had a monopoly on trade with Spanish colonies. The Muscovy Company helped break the monopoly of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic.

Rivalry and relevance of Antwerp - In 1550, most of England’s trade was exporting wool to Antwerp (which was a port controlled by Spain). As relations with Spain got worse, trading through Antwerp became harder. This encouraged exploration and the discovery of new trade routes.

Angering Spain - Elizabeth hoped English privateers could distract Spain as well as disrupt its flow of silver and resources from America. Instead, they angered him. Spain attacked John Hawkins’ fleet in 1568 for trying to break Spain’s monopoly in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.

Transatlantic trade - Exploring the New World was contentious because Spain and Portugal claimed it. In 1562 and 1564, John Hawkins made large profits from the Triangular Trade. Drake conducted raids against Spanish ships and colonies in the New World. He brought back huge sums in 1572-3 and after his circumnavigation 1577-80.

Sir John Hawkins - In 1562 and 1564, Hawkins made profits from the Triangular Trade for figures such as Cecil, Leicester and Elizabeth I. In 1568, his ships were attacked by the Spanish in Mexico. This was in response to him trying to break Spain’s monopoly in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.

The Lost Colony - In 1585, Raleigh set up a colony on Roanoke Island, Virginia. But most of the 108 settlers returned to England in 1586. By 1590, there was nobody in the colony. Roanoke Island was then called the Lost Colony. There were not enough supplies and Roanoke did not have good land for farming.

Sir Francis Drake - Between 1577-1580, Drake became the first person to circumnavigate the globe. This included raiding Spanish ports in the Americas, and losing several ships from his fleet in storms around the globe. For example, he captured £40,000 of Spanish treasure in Panama. He was knighted on his return. The wealth from Drake’s travels and his knighthood encouraged more British sailors. Elizabeth I also took a large chunk of the treasure that Drake brought home from his journey.

Rural landowners - The rising price of food benefitted landowners. They could afford enclosure and new techniques helping drainage and animal breeding. Enclosure was actually limited but caused great upset where it happened. There was a spate of enclosures in some areas 1591-7. Parliament passed two Acts in 1598 to restrict enclosure and prevent more land being taken away from crops and given over the animals.

Simplicity - Their services were simple and they rejected ceremonies. They wore simple clothing and studied the Bible very closely. Some were made bishops by Elizabeth. Only by 1568 did they agree to wear the ceremonial robe, or surplice, of the Church of England.

Presbyterianism - Presbyterians went further. They questioned the need for bishops at all and often criticised the meeting during prophesyings (religious meetings). John Field, one of the most prominent Puritans, was banned from preaching in 1580. Elizabeth also suspended Edmund Grindal, the Archbishop of Canterbury, for encouraging prophesyings.

Hostility to Elizabeth - Puritans argued that Elizabeth's reforms were not enough and argued that the 39 Articles were Popish (Catholic).

Martin Marprelate Tracts - The Separatist movement returned to prominence because of the Martin Marprelate Tracts. These were angry attacks on bishops and the Church of England in foul language. They caused outrage among the public and authorities. Puritans tried to distance themselves from the tracts but were still associated with them. In 1593, the Act Against Seditious Sectaries set the death penalty for those accused of being Separatists.

The Catholic threat in the 1580s - Surveillance and arrests of English Catholics also increased after the Throckmorton (1583) and Babington (1586) plots. In 1581 the first Jesuits were executed. A new law increased fines for recusancy to £20, impossible for ordinary people to afford. In 1585 parliament passed an act which gave Catholic priests 40 days to leave England or be executed. Overall nearly 150 Catholic priests were executed under Elizabeth I, although most were simply imprisoned in a specially built gaol.

The Catholic threat in the 1590s - Mass was still held in secret, mainly for the gentry. Douai priests were reluctant to support Philip II, unlike the Jesuits. They said Philip II’s agenda was not simply religious. Catholicism was dying out among the ordinary people. The war against Spain helped this process. People’s instinct was to support England and Elizabeth I. By 1603 Catholicism in England is estimated to have been at 10% with perhaps only 2% actively worshipping.

Historical assessment - It can be difficult to know the extent of the Catholic threat to Elizabeth during her reign. Alan Dures (1983) says that there were only 16 recusants who paid the full £260 fine each year but there were also people who were poorer who did not pay it. Dures (1983) argues that 'historians underestimate the extent to which the fine did actually produce conformity amongst heads of households.' Jane Shelley of London paid the £260 under Elizabeth yet, in 1606 when the government chose to take ⅔ of her land rather than money, she converted to Catholicism. Historian Bossy argues that the Catholicism that existed after the Reformation in England was not just a continuation of mediaeval religion. He argues that it was a new entity that emerged in reaction to the new religion.

Anglicanism identity - Anglicanism developed its own identity and its very name emphasised its national links – especially when England was under threat from abroad. The 39 Articles clearly laid out Anglican beliefs. By 1603, two generations had grown up with and were used to Anglicanism.

Enforcing Anglicanism - The structure of the Church of England made enforcing Anglicanism easier. The High Commission enabled the prosecution of disobedient clergy and there were regular visitations. Treason laws made Catholicism and Separatism punishable. Attendance at Church of England services was compulsory. A licence was needed to preach. If local clergy had no licence, there was an approved Book of Homilies to use. Whitgift was an enthusiastic enforcer of Church of England discipline.

Literacy - But the bulk of the population did not go to school and was illiterate. Literacy for males rose from 20% to 30% during Elizabeth I’s reign. Literacy for females stayed at 20%.

Early schools - Children were taught about behaviour and religion at home. Aged six, children then went to Sunday school. Rich children may have learned with the help of a private tutor and poor children would have been trained in housekeeping and basic manual labour.

Actors - Acting was a male-only profession. Actors such as Richard Burbage were particularly famous and performed roles many times over. Theatre troupes, such as Shakespeare’s Lord Chamberlain’s Men, performed the plays.

Elizabethan theatres - In this era, many of the first permanent theatres were built. Rich and poor attended the same performances for the first time. The rich sat in covered galleries. The poor stood in the pit, often heckling those on stage. The stage was decorated with scenery and the roof, the ‘heavens’, housed ropes and pulleys for dramatic entrances.

Theatre for all - The theatre was popular because it was affordable for all, exciting to watch, and it also served as a social occasion. Many plays carried political messages and hidden critiques of the ruling classes. The Globe was built in the City of Southwark, as the City of London was opposed to the construction of theatres. They were said to encourage crime and create disruption.

Opposition to the theatre - Some opposed the theatre: Puritans believed the theatre distracted people from prayer, or even was sinful. Others believed that large crowds could lead to the spread of disease. Theatres could be dangerous because many members of the audience were drunk and crimes were committed.

Case study - In the 1560s the entire political nation was talking about the issue of Elizabeth's marriage and the future succession. In Gorboduc, a play co-written by Norton, Dudley was promoted as a suitor by showing the audience the terrible future the country might face if the matter of succession remained unsettled.

Elizabeth I and music - Under Elizabeth I's patronage, music in England was world-class. Elizabeth I herself was an accomplished musician, particularly on the lute and virginals (an instrument like a keyboard). Elizabeth I commissioned William Byrd to compose music for the Chapel Royal. For example, he wrote the 'Great Service'.

Elizabeth I and art - Recently, historians have argued that art in Elizabethan England was not that impressive compared to the continent. Instead, they argue that music was superior. Elizabeth herself was not a keen patron of art and rarely commissioned her own portraits. Most surviving portraits, such as the Rainbow Portrait or Sieve Portraits, were commissioned by courtiers. Portraits were often gifts to the Queen and used to gain favour. Portraits were also used to communicate Elizabeth I's power.

Popular music - Music was central to the religious experience because of congregational singing. The amount of music in services was very contentious amongst Protestant reformers. For example, some Puritans believed music detracted from the message of God. In 1562, there was an attempt to ban organs. But this failed. The Psalms written by Sternhold and Hopkins were very popular. Historians argue that music was central to religious identity in Elizabethan England.

Literature - Literature thrived as printing presses spread. Ancient Latin and Greek writers were very popular in the original or translations. Books on History, accounts of voyages of discovery and poetry were all popular. Sidney’s Arcadia and Spenser’s The Faerie Queene were important works.

The arts at court - As Elizabeth I's privy chamber was mostly female, it was more difficult to access her. Historians such as Starkey have argued that this meant it was more important to gain the Queen's attention at court. Often, courtiers would perform poetry, music or give the Queen portraits or miniatures. They hoped this would gain her favour and that she would give them patronage.

Foreign policy - England was at war with Spain. Spain was bankrupt and England was under severe financial strain. England’s allies were: Scotland, France, the Northern Dutch provinces. England’s enemy was Spain. England had begun making some headway in the New World, although all attempts to found colonies had failed. New trading links had been made with Russia and India.

Historical assessment - Historian John Guy has a theory that Elizabeth's reign can be broken into two very distinct parts. Her 'second reign' began after 1588 and was marked by troubles such as war and diplomatic failures overseas, and poverty and factionalism at home. Patrick Collison calls this period the 'nasty nineties'. For example, agricultural prices increased more in real terms between 1594 and 1598 than they had at any time before.