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U56, b) LITERARY BACKGROUND - Coggle Diagram

- - - - 1801 Act of Union: the United Kingdom (UK) & Union Jack
        
        Ireland lost its parliament: UK ruled from a centralized London parliament
        
        The 1800 Act of Union formed a new country by uniting England, Wales, Scotland & Ireland: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. A new flag, the Union Jack, was created for it which had components from the flags of each member state (red cross, diagonal white cross with blue background & diagonal red cross).
        
        Ireland lost its separate parliament in Dublin, with Irish MPs instead sitting in Westminster. So, the entire UK was to be ruled from a centralised London parliament. For most Irish, there wasn't a noticeable difference, but it meant the Irish government representatives could not pass laws on their own.
      - Act of Union (1801)
    - - Great Irish Famine: potato blight (main food source): Millions died & emigrated to US & Britain
        
        The 19th century saw continued British control over Ireland, culminating in the worst disaster in Irish history, the devastating Great Hunger or Great Irish Famine. A potato blight in 1845 destroyed Ireland’s main food source, and British policies exacerbated the crisis. Food continued to be exported from Ireland, and inadequate relief efforts led to the deaths of approximately one million people, while another million emigrated, mostly to the US and Britain. The famine deepened resentment towards British rule and fueled later nationalist movements.
      - (1845)
    - - Inspired by the French /American revolutions
        +By the United Irishmen: brutally crushed
        
        By the late 18th century, inspired by the American and French Revolutions, Irish nationalists sought greater independence. The 1798 Rebellion, led by the United Irishmen, attempted to overthrow British rule. However, it was brutally crushed, leading to further repression. On the other hand, it convinced Britain that Ireland needed to be fully integrated into the United Kingdom to prevent further uprisings.
  - - - /the Anglo-Irish War btw Irish republicans & British gov. (1919-1921)
      - After WWI broke out (1914), the Easter Rising (1916) by the IRB declared an Irish Republic > Crushed after a week of intense fighting (leaders were executed/martyrs)
        
        1919: Nationalist party won > War of Independece: Independent Irish Republic & Irish Parliament, the IRA guerrilla warfare
        
        Anglo-Irish Treaty: Northern Ireland (6 counties, Protestant) & Republic of Ireland (26 counties, Commonwealth & Catholic)
        
        Irish Civil War: Pro vs. Anti-Treaty forces > Pro- won: Republic of Ireland with its constitution
        
        the Anglo-Irish Treaty
        
        (3) After three years of war, the conflict led to negotiations and both sides agreed to a truce, the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which resulted in the partition of Ireland: the 6 northern counties remaining part of the United Kingdom with a majority protestant population, Northern Ireland; and the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland) of 26 counties still part of the Commonwealth & mostly Catholic.
        
        (1921)
        
        the Irish Civil War
        
        The signing of this treatry led to internal divisions in Ireland, leading to a 10-month civil war (1922-23) between pro- & anti-Treaty forces, as the latter were seeking a fully independent Irish Republic. It was a dark chapter in the history of Ireland. The pro-Treaty side won, but its leader, Collins, was assassinated during the war. After the civil war ended, the Free State evolved into the Republic of Ireland with the adoption of a new constitution in 1937 and the declaration of a republic in 1949.
        
        (1922-23)
        
        the Easter Rising
        
        (1) The Easter Rising took place on April 24-29th, 1916 in Dublin. The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) successfully turned 1,600 people/volunteers into rebellion, provoking a rising which was quickly crushed by Crown forces. So after a week of intense fighting, realizing that they were outnumbered and facing heavy casualties, the leaders of the rebellion decided to surrender. As a consequence, the leaders were executed by firing squad, turning them into martyrs and shifting public opinion in favor of Irish independence. So, though initially unpopilar, the Easter Rising was a turning point, as it radicalized Irish nationalism and paved the way for a more organized independence movement.
        
        (1916)
        
        War of Independence
        
        (1919)
        
        (2) This led to the Irish War of Independence (or Anglo-Irish War) on January 21, 1919. It started when a nationalist party won a majority in the General Election. Its MP declared the establishment of an independent Irish Republic & formed the Irish Parliament and on the same day the Irish Republican Army (IRA) started a guerrilla warfare (with ambushes, raids & assassinations) targeting British forces.
    - - 1949: Irish Free State > Republic of Ireland, left the Commonwealth & integrated into the EU. While Northern Ireland (within the UK): little representation & no political power.
        
        Divisions btw Protestant unionists & Catholic nationalists > The Troubles: decades of bombings, assassinations & violence > the Good Friday Agreement
        
        Republic of Ireland
        
        In 1949, the Irish Free State became an independent republic (the Republic of Ireland) & formally left the Commonwealth. Since then, it has moved slowly from an inward-looking, church-dominated, impoverished state to an outward looking, open, prosperous, democracy, and it has integrated further into the EU. On the other hand, Northern Ireland has remained a territory within the UK with little representation and almost no political power.
        
        From 1960s, despite some temporary ups & downs, relations between the Republic of Ireland & the UK have become better and better. However, complete reconciliation between them will not be possible until a political solution to the problem of the Northern Ireland is found.
        
        (1949)
        
        Northern Ireland & The Troubles
        
        While the Republic of Ireland moved forward as an independent state, Northern Ireland remained part of the UK, but with deep divisions between the Protestant unionists (who wanted to stay in the UK) and the Catholic nationalists (who wanted to join Ireland). This led to The Troubles (1960s-1998), a brutal conflict involving paramilitary groups like the IRA and British forces. Bombings, assassinations, and violence plagued Northern Ireland for decades.
        
        In 1998, the Good Friday Agreement brought peace, establishing a power-sharing government and reducing violence. While tensions still exist, Northern Ireland has been relatively peaceful since.
        
        (1960s-1998)
  - - - Viking raids
        
        Raids of Monastic settlements & Coastal towns
        
        Trading hubs in Dublin
        
        Converted to Christianity & Integrated into Irish society
        
        Ireland was never invaded by Romans or Anglo Saxons but it suffered Viking incursions, which took away a great part of their Celtic heritage. The Vikings arrived in Ireland in the late 8th century, raiding monastic settlements & coastal towns. Over time, they established trading hubs like Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick, integrating into Irish society.
        
        Vikings gradually assimilated and converted to Christianity, playing a role in Ireland's evolving social and political structure. Their presence ultimately contributed to Ireland’s fragmentation, as Irish kings vied for power against them and among themselves. This disunity made Ireland vulnerable to the next wave of invaders—the Normans.
    - - Christianity
        
        St. Patrick
        
        A center of Christianity
        
        The spread of Christianity had already begun by the 5th century, largely thanks to a British slave, St. Patrick, and by the time of the Viking Age, Ireland was a center of Christian learning. However, Viking raids targeted monasteries, which were rich in resources, leading to destruction and cultural loss.
    - - Henry II's Norman conquest of Ireland
        
        Henry II of England
        
        Assimilated into Irish culture,
        customs & language
        
        English system of government
        & Involvement in Irish affairs
        
        Irish hostility towards the foreign English & Tensions with the monarchy
        
        The Norman first arrived in the 1060s in Britain with Henry II of England (Anglo-Norman king), they dominated much of the country intermarried with the Irish and established the English system of government (central govb. & feudal system), so Irish life changed dramatically after the Norman invasion. This marked the beginning of English involvement in Irish affairs. However, their conquest was still slow & incomplete, and the Irish hostility towards the foreign English was felt for many centuries.
        
        The Normans built castles, introduced feudalism, and established control over large portions of the island. However, by the late Middle Ages, many Normans had assimilated into Irish culture, adopting Irish customs & language. This led to tensions with the English monarchy, which sought to maintain direct control over Ireland, culminating in laws to prevent intermarriage & cultural blending.
    - - Henry VIII & Protestantism
        
        Henry VIII of Tudor: Protestant Church of England & King of Ireland
        
        Ireland remained Catholic: resentment, hostility & resistance > later conflict
        
        In the 16th c. Irish resentement towards English Conquerors increased dramatically when Henry VIII rejected the pope's authority, breaking ties with the Catholic Church and establishing the Protestant Church of England. The imposition of Protestantism in England had a profound impact on Ireland, which was and remained predominantly Catholic. To strengthen his authority, Henry declared himself King of Ireland in 1541, replacing the previous Lordship of Ireland, which had existed since the Norman invasion.
        
        The Tudor monarchy imposed English laws and Protestantism, leading to tensions with the Catholic Irish population. Efforts to enforce Protestantism, particularly under Elizabeth I, faced fierce resistance, setting the stage for later conflicts.
    - - Kingdom of Great Britain
        
        Act of Union: Kingdom of Great Britain (Enland & Scotland). But Ireland remained under British rule
        
        In 1707, the Act of Union were passed by both the English and Scottish Parliaments, leading to their political union and the creation of a single sovereign state, the Kingdom of Great Britain, with a unified Parliament based in Westminster and under a single crown. However, the Kingdom of Ireland was left out and the British government did not respond to their request to be included. The Irish Parliament was under British control, and the Penal Laws heavily restricted Catholics’ rights, limiting their ability to own land, practice law, or hold office.
        
        Act of Union (1707)
    - - Irish rebellion & Cromwell's suppression
        
        English & Scottish Protestants given Irish lands > Irish Rebellion of 1641: a Catholic uprising against English rule
        
        Crushed by Oliver Cromwell: hundreds of thousands died, outlawed Catholicism & confiscated lands > English dominance
        
        By the early 17th century, English & Scottish Protestant settlers were given Irish lands through the policy of Plantation, especially in Ulster. Resentment over land dispossession and religious discrimination led to the Irish Rebellion of 1641, a Catholic uprising against English rule. The rebellion was ruthlessly crushed by Oliver Cromwell and hundreds of thousands died. As a consequence, penal laws were enacted against the Catholics: they lost their civic rights and were outlawed.
        
        During the English Civil War, Ireland became a battleground. In 1649, Oliver Cromwell led a brutal military campaign in Ireland. His policies, including land confiscations, devastated the Catholic Irish population, reinforcing sectarian divisions and English dominance over Ireland.
        
        (1641)
- - - - Born into a working-class protestant family in Dublin's inner city, one of the worst slums in Europe at the time. He experienced poverty & hardship as his father died when he was only 6, leaving the family poorer. O'Casey suffered from poor eyesight, which limited his education. He was mostly self-educated, teaching himself to read and write by studying Shakespeare and Irish history, developing a lifelong love for literature. His working-class background deeply influenced his writing, which often highlighted the struggles of Dublin’s poor.
        
        O'Casey was deeply involved in the Irish nationalist movement. He became politically active in his youth and got involved with socialist & nationalists movements like the "Gaelic League" & the "Irish Republican Brotherhood", which greatly influenced his later works. He also changed his name to its Irish form and learned Gaelic. However, O'Casey’s views clashed with the nationalist leadership when he criticized them for focusing more on nationalism than on improving the lives of the working class, leading to disillusionment & a departure from political activism.
        
        In the early 1920s, O’Casey was a working-class writer with no formal literary background, but he had begun writing plays about the struggles of ordinary Dubliners. O’Casey submitted his first major play, The Shadow of a Gunman (1923) which was a success, and O’Casey became the first working-class playwright staged at the Abbey, breaking away from the theatre’s earlier focus on Irish folklore and rural life. His next 2 plays cemented O’Casey’s reputation but also created tensions between him and the Abbey due to their anti-nationalist themes. The Plough and the Stars was O’Casey’s most controversial work because it questioned the heroism of the Easter Rising. Many Irish nationalists viewed the play as an insult to the memory of the fallen rebels, leading to violent protests inside the Abbey Theatre during performances. Though the play later became one of Ireland’s greatest works, the backlash hurt O’Casey deeply, leaving him feeling unappreciated in his own country, so he moved permanently to Devon, England. He continued to write plays, essays & autobiographical works about Irish life, but his later works were not as successful as his earlier Dublin Trilogy (his first 3 plays at the Abbey Theatre & an instant success). Later, the tension between them increased when one of his plays about WWI, The Silver Tassie (1928), was rejected by the Abbey for being too experimental & un-Irish. O’Casey was outraged and saw this rejection as betrayal, believing that the Abbey only supported plays that conformed to Irish nationalism, and he never forgave the Abbey Theatre.
        
        the Dublin Trilogy
        
        The Plough and the Stars
        
        (1926)
        
        Critical portrayal of the Eastern Rising:
        the human cost of Revolution (women & children)
        
        Focus on the Working class:
        about Ordinary people, not heroes (flawed, confused, vulnerable, indifferent, opportunistic...)
        
        The most Controversial of the 3 plays:
        Protests for being disrespectful & unpatriotic
        
        O'Casey: former nationalist, but became critical/disillusioned > Exploited the working class
        
        The Plough and the Stars follows a group of Dublin tenement dwellers caught in the chaos of the Easter Rising. While nationalist leaders preached ideals of sacrifice, O’Casey shows that it was the poor, particularly women and children, who bore the brunt of the violence. The play critiques how ideology and patriotism can overshadow real human suffering.
        
        Instead of focusing on the leaders of the Easter Rising, O’Casey tells the story of working-class Dubliners who are caught up in the rebellion. The characters are not all patriotic revolutionaries—some are indifferent, some are opportunistic, and some just want to survive.
        
        When the play premiered at the Abbey Theatre in 1926, it provoked outrage & protests from some audience members. O’Casey’s unflinching portrayal of the Easter Rising and the ordinary citizens involved—often depicted as flawed, confused, and vulnerable—challenged the glorified narratives of Irish nationalism. So, protesters disrupted performances, accusing O’Casey of being unpatriotic and disrespectful to those who died in the Rising.
        
        Seán O’Casey had once supported Irish independence and was involved with James Connolly’s Irish Citizen Army. However, he later became disillusioned with nationalism, seeing it as exploiting the working class without improving their lives.
        
        The Shadow of a Gunman
        
        Title: the "Shadow" (how war affects people's lives)
        
        Set in Dublin during the Irish Independence War
        & Inspired by his own life
        
        About Protagonist's mistaken identity (IRA gunman)
        
        Realistic, Non-romanticized view of Irish heroes
        
        The “shadow” in the title refers to how violence & war loom over people’s lives, even those who are not directly involved in the conflict. It also suggests that Davoren isn’t really a gunman but just a shadow of one, pretending to be something he is not.
        
        The play is set in 1920 Dublin, during the War of Independence (1919–1921). The story takes place in a tenement house, showing how ordinary people were caught in the violence and chaos of the time. Drawn from O'Casey's experiences growing up in the tenements of Dublin and witnessing the political and social upheavals of early 20th-c. Ireland. He was deeply affected by the Easter Rising & the subsequent War of Independence, leading him to write plays that criticized the romanticization of war and questioned the heroism of violent revolution.
        
        The protagonist, Donal Davoren, is a struggling poet who becomes the center of attention when his neighbors mistakenly believe he is an IRA gunman. He does nothing to deny the rumors, enjoying the reputation—until events take a dangerous turn.
        
        The play is considered a landmark in Irish theater because it broke away from the idealistic portrayals of Irish heroes and instead focused on the gritty, everyday realities of Dubliners, which was a bold move for the time. The play’s commentary on the futility of political violence & the dangers of romanticizing war is still relevant today.
        
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        (1923)
        
        Juno and the Paycock
        
        (1924)
        
        Title: "Paycock" > peacock (arrogant, lazy, irresponsible, incompetent...)
        
        Juno: Strong female protagonist (wisdom, courage...) & Inspired by his own mother
        
        Critique of Irish society: gender roles, family dynamics & poverty/class divisions
        
        About A false Inheritance: disappointment
        
        Mix of Tragedy & dark Comedy >
        more emotional/shocking
        
        The word paycock is the Dublin pronunciation of peacock, symbolizing Captain Boyle’s laziness and pretentiousness—he struts around boasting but does nothing productive. Juno, his wife, represents hard work and resilience, standing in contrast to her irresponsible husband.
        
        Juno Boyle is as one of O’Casey’s strongest & most memorable characters. In a time when women’s roles were often confined to the domestic sphere, Juno is portrayed as the backbone of the family, holding everything together in the face of poverty & political strife. Her resilience, wisdom, and practicality contrast sharply with her husband’s weakness and irresponsibility. O’Casey grew up in a Dublin tenement, just like the characters in the play. He saw firsthand how poverty and war tore families apart. Juno Boyle is thought to be based on O’Casey’s own mother, who was the strong, hardworking figure in his life.
        
        The play subtly critiques Irish society during the Civil War period. O’Casey highlights how political events impacted ordinary lives while also examining social issues such as gender roles, family dynamics, religion & poverty.
        
        The plot revolves around the Boyle family thinking they’ve inherited money, leading them to spend recklessly—only to find out it was all a mistake. This reflects a common reality in post-war Ireland, where people dreamed of escape but were often let down.
        
        O’Casey brilliantly blends humor with devastating tragedy. The first half has lighthearted moments, with jokes and hopes of a better life, while the second half descends into despair. This contrast makes the final tragedy even more shocking and emotional.
        
        These plays explore the effects of political & social turmoil on the lives of ordinary people during the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent Civil War. It is an exploration of the human condition in the face of social & political turmoil.
        
        1920s
  - - - Born in Dublin, Ireland. His family went through financial ups and downs as his father, John Joyce, was a heavy drinker & squandered the family fortune. This affected Joyce deeply and is reflected in the recurring themes of poverty & social decay in Dubliners. Despite these challenges, James Joyce was highly intelligent. He showed a gift for writing & a passion for literature, so his family pushed him to get an education. After college, he studied modern languages at University College Dublin.
        
        Joyce left Ireland in 1904 at the age of 22 with his partner, Nora Barnacle, and lived much of his life in self-imposed exile in various cities across Europe, including Paris, and later Zurich (Switzerland) and Trieste (Italy). He worked as an English teacher and tried to make ends meet while pursuing his literary career. And although most of his adult life was spent abroad, Dublin continued to be the setting of all his fictional works. His strongest criticism on his country was the paralysis of Irish society. He sees Dublin as a prison: a place that stifles creativity and individuality. And even though he wrote about Dublin with deep detail and nostalgia, Joyce never permanently returned.
        
        Nora Barnacle played a crucial role in Joyce's life & work. They met in Dublin and their first date, on June 16, 1931, inspired the day on which Ulysses is set. She was also the inspiration for Molly Bloom, the protagonist's wife in Uslysses. They never married officially until 1931, despite having two children together, but their relationship remained unconventional & deeply intertwined with Joyce's creative process. Their relationship wasn’t always smooth. Joyce’s heavy drinking and financial instability often put a strain on their relationship. Despite hardships, they remained devoted to each other until Joyce’s death in 1941.
        
        Due to its sexual content & innovative style, Ulysses faced significant censorship issues. It was banned in the US & the UK for many years. A famous obscenity trial in 1933 in the US led to Judge ruling in favor of Ulysses, declaring it not obscene. This decision changed the landscape of literary freedom in the US.
        
        He had a remarkable talent for languages, as he could speak 17 languages (became a polyglot & linguist), which is reflected in Finnegans Wake.
        
        Although Joyce is considered one of the greatest writers in the English language today, his work did not bring him financial success during his lifetime, so he relied heavily on the support of patrons.
        
        Dubliners (1913)*
        
        A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1915)
        
        Ulysses (1918)
        
        Finnegans Wake (1939)
        
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