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CWCS 4000 Word Essay "EAL Student Support in Secondary Schools:…

- - - - Good - The effects of these interventions have been studied on a multitude of outcomes for pupils, such as pupils’ academic achievements, school performance, and mental health out-comes, with effect sizes varying from zero to medium size(Allen-Meares et al.,2013; Franklin et al.,2009
  - - - Hill by Hill - difficulty when there are previous conflicts
      - Hill in hill - doesnt work without funding
      - Hynek et al - poor communication between team members
- - - - o Student teachers - their reports do seem to reveal that the needs of EAL learners across Scotlandare not being met, despite the fact that legislation is in place which requires LAs and schoolsto ensure that all learners have appropriate access to the curriculum.
      - SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT 2015 - Where the English as an Additional Language (EAL) status of a child is known, a lower percentage of children with EAL achieve the expected CfE level compared to children with no EAL.
    - - FOLEY ET AL 2013 - - The reportLearning in 2(+) Languages(Learning and TeachingScotland [LTScotland] 2005), when advising on how best to implement CfE in ways thatsupport bilingual learners, recommends that In implementing CfE, schools should build on pupils’ learning and achievements, withinand beyond school. Bilingual learners have a number of particular strengths including theirexperience of different languages. However, some will require additional support if they are tomaximise their progress in school and achieve to their fullest potential. (LTScotland 2005, 8)
      - FOLEY ET AL 2013 - - The Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act (HMSO2004), which offers a wide definition of additional support, notes that: ‘bilingual learnerscan be included if they require additional support to that which might normally be providedin a school to ensure that they make good progress in their learning’ (27).
      - FOLEY ET AL. 2013 - - In Scotland (following the Education [Scotland] Act of 1981), as is also the case in England(following recommendations from the Swann Report 1985, and the Calderdale Education Authority review of EAL provision 1986), the key principle that guides the education of EAL students is that: ‘they should be educated in the mainstream classrooms alongside their peers to avoid segregated provision and to guarantee equal access to the curriculum’ (Harrisand Leung 2011, 251)
    - - UNCRC ( UNICEF ,1989) - Article 30 of the UNCRC makes it clear that children and young people who belong to a minority group have the right to share their culture, language and religion with other people in that group
      - UNCRC UNICEF 1989 - - States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular: (a) Make primary education compulsory and available free to all; (b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education, make them available and accessible to every child, and take appropriate measures such as the introduction of free education and offering financial assistance in case of need . States Parties shall promote and encourage international cooperation in matters relating to education, in particular with a view to contributing to the elimination of ignorance and illiteracy throughout the world and facilitating access to scientific and technical knowledge and modern teaching methods. In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries
  - - - Deficit view (colonialism)
        
        BARNES ET AL (2019) - o The literature suggests that negative attitudes, in particular, are often shaped by monolingual bias (and/or multilingual ignorance) (Mellom et al., 2018; Pulinx et al., 2017) which may be influenced by a lack of exposure to language diversity (Pettit, 2011)
        
        [BARNES ET AL (2019 STUDY - o Pulinx et al., (2017) explored the beliefs of 775 teachers across 48 secondary schools and found that the participating schools observed the strict language policies that encouraged the exclusivity and promotion of Dutch. However, they found that monolingual policies had great traction in schools with a more evenly distributed ethnic diversity and an overall lower percentage of ethnic diversity. In other words, schools which had a higher percentage of ethnic diversity overall and consisted of large concentrations of students from one ethnic group had teachers who were more willing to address the increasing linguistic diversity of their school :fire:
        
        FOLEY ET AL 2013 - o important cultural differences and expectations of both EAL students and studentswho speak English as a first language (Hall 1992)
        
        DEMIE & LEWIS 2018 - - see Michael et al. 2016; Arnot et al. 2014; Krashen 1999). All these research findings suggest that a child who has a strong education in their first language, will find English input more comprehensible
        
        WELPY 2023 -o At both school and university level, ‘one size fits all approaches’ tend to negate the deep historical, social and political roots and contexts which underpin the experiences of ‘EAL students’ at different levels of education. Issues related to equitable assessment, inclusion, linguistic support and anti-racism tend to be sidelined in favour of a focus on language proficiency and attainment, which most often overshadows the complex experiences and needs of students labelled ‘EAL’
        
        WELPY 2023 o The languages of the coloniser were constructed as ‘civilising’ languages which disregarded other languages as ‘undeveloped’, negating other knowledge systems and ‘colonising the mind’ (Fanon, 1952; Said, 1978; Spivak, 1985, 1988)**
        
        WELPY 2023 o . In worse case scenarios, EAL students with little English are placed within Special Educational Needs groups without proper diagnosis (Evans et al., 2020; Peer & Reid, 2014). This shows that it is not ‘language’ itself that is oppressive, but the institutional ‘dispositif’ of language in the educational system (Mbembe & Mabanckou, 2018, p. 65, our translation
        
        WELPY 2023o Racism was a recurrent theme in dialogues with EAL support teachers and bilingual officers. In many cases, racism took the form of ‘microaggressions’. Microaggressions, an important concept in Critical Race Theory, can be defined as pervasive, subtle and everyday forms of racism, which are cumulative in nature. Their tacit form makes them difficult to identify and to contest without being deemed ‘oversensitive’ (Atwood & López, 2014; Welply, 2018)
      - Understanding of Second Language Acquisition
        
        BARNES ET AL (2019) - o For example, several studies have revealed that mainstream teachers believe that EAL learners should be fluent in English within 1-2 years within a US classroom (Reeves, 2006; Walker et al., 2004), when most research suggests that it typically takes anywhere from 4 to 7 years to develop English language proficiency (Creagh, Kettle, Alford, Comber, & Shield, 2019; Thomas & Collier, 2002; Thompson, 2017).
        
        BARNES ET AL (2019) - o In addition to understanding how long it should take to learn English, a number of studies found that teachers did not always recognise the role of the students’ first language in the development of English and some considered their first language a hinderance to English language learning (Edwards, 2014; Mellom et al., 2018; Reeves, 2006; Walker et al., 2004).
    - - BARNES ET AL (2019) - o In their longitudinal study exploring secondary school completion among refugees in Melbourne, Australia, Correa-Velez, Gifford, McMichael, and Sampson (2017) found the age on arrival creates a significant barrier to secondary school completion. They found that those arriving at an older age struggled to complete secondary school because they “are entering secondary school at higher year levels with significant educational expectations and workload” (Correa-Velez et al., 2017, p. 799). This suggests that EAL students entering at secondary school are also short of time to develop both language and content skills under the expectations and workload of secondary schooling. They require additional class time to meet expectations, however, there is limited time in class and limited support inside and outside of the classroom for them to successfully complete the class work and exams required for completion. :fire:
      - DEMIE & LEWIS 2018 - - In particular, there is research evidence from England showing that a pupil’s fluency in English is a key predictor of their achievement in national tests at age 11 (e.g. Strand and Demie 2005) and in public examinations at age 16 (e.g. Demie and Strand 2006). These studies have examined the effect of stages of English fluency on attainment at Key Stage 2 tests (KS2) and General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). However, pupils with EAL who were fully fluent in English achieved significantly higher scores in all KS2 tests and GCSE than their monolingual peers.
        
        Demie (2017) I*n general the data show that there is a strong relationship between the stages of fluency in English and educational attainment. In general, empirical evidence shows that the performance level of EAL pupils increases as fluency in English increases.*
      - WELPY 2023 o Because the secondary [school] curriculum is so colonial, I guess, and so traditional, based on 19th century texts, which are very removed from the students' experiences. There is nothing there, say in the English curriculum, to which they might relate. It builds on so much prior ‘English’ knowledge that they don't have
      - CONTEH 2022 - But it’s a common experience among teachers that their learners, particularly older pupils, can be reluctant to use or talk about their home languages in the classroom
    - - FOLEY ET AL 2013 -o EAL learners’ loss of identity within contexts where their lack of power and visibilityis evident (Bernstein 1996; Statham 2008)
      - FOLEY ET AL 2013 - o the challenges that many EAL students face in coping with a new – and often baffling– educational context with its different pedagogies and expectations (Colombi andSchleppegrell 2002; Leung and Creese 2010)
    - - TURNER 2016 o The main obstacles cited by the content area teachers were lack of leadership and formal processes. Interestingly, this was reversed when teachers talked about factors that they perceived to sustain collaboration. EAL teachers tended to focus on leadership and administration, whereas content area teachers tended to focus on positive interactions with EAL teachers
      - LUCAS 2011 - - The need for collaboration between ESL and mainstream teachers was highlighted over 20 years ago (Penfield, 1987). Bilingual/ ESL teachers1 and mainstream teachers, isolated from each other, often create different language learning environments for ELLs based on their perceptions of how best to serve the students. They sometimes fault each other for what ELLs have not yet learned
    - - BELL FOUNDATION -* Only 37% of early career teachers report that their teacher training prepared them well for teaching in multilingual classrooms (DfE, 2023), an issue compounded by the absence of EAL from the Initial Teacher Training and Early Career Frameworks. However, more than 40% of teachers work in schools with multilingual classrooms, an increase of 14% between 2013 and 2018 (OECD). *
    - - WELPY 2023 o . However, although mainstreaming and inclusion feature in principle in educational policy in England, they are heavily constrained in practice. EAL provision is highly dependent on the availability of funding, which varies strongly between localities. The suppression of ring-fenced funding for ethnic-minority students (EMAG) in 2011 led to more decentralised funding structures and unequal provision across the country, and has put pressure on mainstreaming practices in England
      - PREMIER & PARR 2019 - some schools have limited access to EAL funding, small numbers of EAL specialist staff, or perhaps no EAL specialist teachers at all. Under these circumstances, there is usually limited collaboration; or what collaboration there is can be of limited value
  - - - TRUCKENBRODT & SLAUGHTER (2016)- 1)EAL teachers and classroom teachers should explore each others academic backgrounds. 2)seek out curriculum comonalities between languages and english. 3)create and use a common metalanguage. 4)share pedagogic approaches and tools
      - BROOKS ET AL (2010) - Tupa and McFadden (2009) found that when cen- tral office and school-level administrators aplied a "web of instructional leadership," stu- dent achievement as measured by standardized assessments increased (p. 555). This instructional web included central office personnel, curricu- lum specialists, building level administrators, and all teachers
        
        PREMIER & PARR 2019 -Davison (2006) cautions against complacent managerial approaches to collaboration, such as where teachers are told to work together with the expectation that this would invariably produce positive outcomes. She argues, with Deal and Peterson (1991), that when collaborating teachers are given time to develop shared beliefs and values, they are more likely to function productively and create a coherent coordinated approach to their teaching
      - BROOKS ET AL (2010) - involve EAL teachers in meetings and decisions regarding said student
      - FOLEY ET AL 2013 - recommendations: o To monitor and record the progress of EAL learners, each student musthave anEAL Profile of Competencefor each line of development of language at each ageband and stage of English. Copies of the relevant recording sheet should be made for eachstudent who is learning EAL. It is recommended thatProfilesbe updated at least twice eachyear at a liaison meeting between the EAL teacher and class or subject/support teachero TheProfileis intended to be passed on each year to the student’s next class teacher and shouldalso follow the student at points of transition to other stages and locations of schooling,for example from primary to secondary, typically at the age of 11 in the United Kingdom.
      - DEMIE & LEWIS 2018 - - However, recent research identified the reasons behind schools’ success in raising achievement levels, which included the quality of teaching and learning, effective leadership at all levels, effective use of an inclusive curriculum, diversity in the school workforce, strong values and high expectations and the effective use of assessment data to monitor and track EAL performance and targeted support and interventions (see Demie 2017; Demie and Mclean 2016; Ofsted 2009 ASSESSMENT DATA ETC. CAN MAKE IT EASIER TO COLLABORATE
      - DEMIE & LEWIS 2018 -  Strong Leadership
        • The headteachers set high expectations for the senior team and the staff as a whole. There was a relentless focus on improvement, particularly in the quality of teaching and learning, effective use of data and higher achievement by students. The headteachers were very well supported by senior teams exceptionally effective in guiding, monitoring and evaluating the many aspects of the schools’ work. Staff were trusted and valued by the leadership team, expectations of all pupils’ social andacademic achievement were high and the schools were deeply embedded in the life of the area they served. There was an exceptional sense of teamwork across the schools. This was reflected in the consistent and committed way managers at all levels worked towards the schools’ aims to raise achievement. :fire:
        Overall there was a clear emphasis on collective responsibility in the school which ensured that senior and middle leaders were fully accountable for their areas and pupil progress.
        • At termly Learning Assessment meetings, the needs of individual pupils and their EAL targets, drawn from the Stages of English assessments, were discussed with headteachers, deputy headteachers/ inclusion managers and EAL staff, and interventions put into place and monitored regularly for effectiveness. In the schools designated EAL teachers, together with EAL support staff, many of whom were bilingual, supported teaching and learning
        • Placing bilingual teaching assistants here also helped build sustainable partnerships with parents as bilingual teaching assistants were often able to communicate with parents and therefore engage them in their children’s learning and the life of the school.
        
        small study sample which may make it unrepresentative in other schools.
        Lack of staff training
        lack of funding and time
      - TURNER 2016 - it has also been documented that collaboration can cause interpersonal conflict (Dooner, Mandzuk, & Clifton, 2008; Lima, 2001; Little, 1990). Tensions may be the spark for the examination of beliefs and also for growth (e.g. Achinstein, 2002; Dooner et al., 2008; Lima, 2001; Pareja Roblin & Margalef, 2013), and the negotiation and management of tensions is central to an understanding that conflict can have a positive effect (Achinstein, 2002; Lima, 2001).
      - TURNER 2016 Arkoudis (2006, p. 429) further argued that EAL teachers need training in collaborative practices to gain ‘epistemological authority within the mainstream curriculum’
      - TURNER 2016 - - EAL collaboration is an area in particular need of study because of the issues surrounding integrationist policies in English-speaking countries. If, as Harper et al. (2008) argued, the role of EAL teachers and content area teachers converges, EAL teachers’ lack of ‘content teacher’ status is especially conspicuous. EAL collaboration is a difficult subject to address in the crowded teacher education curriculum, but facilitating and creating dilemmatic spaces in EAL methodology courses for content area PSTs to reflect meaningfully on their own engagement with EAL collaboration may be a good place to start.
      - CONTEH 2022 - Jenny Smith (2019) and Graham Smith (2019) illustrate ways that practitioners who work both inside and outside classrooms can collaborate to improve what happens in multilingual classrooms. Jenny Smith talks about ‘action research’ (2019: 22), and Graham Smith (2019) discusses partnership or co-teaching. Both point out the importance of building a ‘relationship of trust’ (2019: 25) among all participants.
      - CONTEH 2022 - working collaboratively with other members of staff and with parnets and commuities with exploratory talk (mercer) can make discussions more transformative and help to break down power relations between different stakeholders (Finds of Knowledge Philosophy) This create a more equal dynamic / two way conversations rather than one.
      - PREMIER & PARR 2019 - o Kemmis et al. (2014), in similar ways, advocate for the importance of teachers continuing to learn from and with each other in what they conceptualise as ‘communities of practice’ (cf. Lave & Wenger, 1991).
      - PREMIER & PARR 2019 - o One approach for providing continued, and targeted support to teachers’ learning is through systematic, internally coordinated mentoring programs. Mentoring in multicultural schools like Violet PS, with high percentages of EAL students, typically involves an experienced teacher providing support and advice to a new graduate or staff member with less expertise in a school (Le Maistre & Pare, 2010) o Thus mentoring within a robust professional community of practice can often be reciprocal, and can assist in creating a cohesive, collaborative school community (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2000)
      - ANDERSON 2016 -- o All school staff from the receptionist through to the Head Teacher can make a difference by displaying an inclusive and welcoming attitude to new arrivals and all EAL students
      - ANDERSON 2016 - o Parental involvement and engagement can be particularly challenging for both schools and parents of EAL students. Sending out information to parents/guardians of EAL students may have little impact. However, schemes which ‘draw in’ parents to school activities can foster meaningful engagement in children’s learning and with the wider community.
        
        STROETINGA ET AL 2019 - - Several studies indicate that the academic success of children benefits from teacher–parent contact (e.g. Henderson and Mapp 2002; Fan and Chen 2001; Englund et al. 2004 - Benefits are, among others, demonstrated by improved grades (Fan and Chen 2001), fewer drop‐outs, more on‐time high school graduations and greater success in higher education (Hoover-Dempsey et al. 2005). Some studies also indicate behavioural benefits, such as fewer behavioural problems and improved social functioning of the child (El Nokali et al. 2010), and a more positive attitude of the child towards learning (Harris and Goodall 2008).
      - HYNEK ET AL 2020 - - Schools are traditionally a“one profession organiza-tion”where teachers have dominated (Dahl,2016).However, teachers alone cannotsolvetheproblemspupilsare facing; thus, interprofessional collaboration in theschool context can contribute to more effective problemsolving than a single profession would manage (Green &Johnson,2015)
    - - BARNES AT AL (2019) -many regional teachers lack the opportunities for exposure to language and cultural diversity (Gándara et al., 2005; Pettit, 2011).Therefore, professional development may be a way forward to disrupt and address current misconceptions
      - DEMINE & LEWIS 2018 - It particularly argues that initial assessments, use of buddy systems for new arrivals, personalised learning, individual targets, an interactive learning environment, opportunity for talk (role play, talk partners, etc.) and opportunities for silence appear essential for EAL learners.
      - DEMIE & LEWIS 2018 - • All staff adopted a holistic approach which incorporated a range of strategies known to be effective for learners with EAL. These included collaborative learning, a focus on talk and vocabulary development throughout the curriculum, an experiential curriculum and promotion of pupils’ first languages in the classroom as a tool for learning. :fire:
      - PREMIER & PARR 2019 - o Large-scale studies of professional learning in different parts of the world (e.g., Doecke, Parr et al., 2008; Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson & Orphanos, 2009) have shown the importance of ongoing professional learning for individual teachers and for the whole culture of a school’s staff.
- - - - Lack of funding? Indicates
  - - - Creating a more inclusive environment - acknowledge the student and make an effort to include them. E.g. when making christmas cards, try to communicate that to them so they can join in. (Anderson)
    - - These teacher only see this student once or twice a week. Collaboration with their other teachers i snecessary to know what there needs are (Hynek et al - one profession organization)
      - More collaborative meetings could help to identify best practice through creating communities of practice (Premier & Parr) (Mercer and Conteh) --- although how feasible is this if you have multiple students???
      - Monitoring already in place (identification of EAL on Seamus) however it is grouped together with ASN, so it is hard for teachers to determine what their additional need is. Suggest that alternative colours be used for EAL. And provide progress updates to EAL pupils teachers (recommended by Foley et al).
- - - - MORE TEACHER PD, THE BETTER COLLABORATION CAN BE