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WORK - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Job Churn: The dynamic nature of the economy is reflected in job churn, with millions of jobs opening and closing each year.
      - Long-Term Net Social Gains: While individuals experiencing job loss is immediate and personal, the long-term net social gains from new jobs are significant.
      - Flexibility and Planning: There is a need for flexibility and planning at individual, institutional, and community levels to address the challenges of job displacement.
    - - Evolving Wage Trends: Economists debate the trends in wages, with some arguing a decline in the value of human work as computers take over tasks.
      - Total Compensation: Fringe benefits increased, impacting total compensation, even as hourly wages appeared to decline.
      - Consumption and Leisure Measures: Researchers Michael Cox and Richard Alm looked at direct measures of consumption and leisure to provide an alternative perspective on economic well-being.
    - - Impact on Job Seekers: The web and social media have made job seeking more convenient, providing information, job openings, and company reputation details.
      - Online Recruitment and Training: Companies use social media and online games for recruitment, while online training programs help individuals acquire new skills.
      - Global Connectivity: Technology enables long-distance interviews, allowing job seekers to explore opportunities without extensive travel.
    - - Decline in Working Hours: Working hours have declined since the Industrial Revolution, but perspectives on the extent of this decline vary among economists.
      - Factors Influencing Working Hours: Factors such as lifestyle expectations, tax structures, and compensation policies impact the perception of working hours and income.
      - Technology and Quality of Life: Despite variations in income and working hours, technology contributes to improvements in product quality, safety, convenience, and comfort.
    - - Evolution of Music Technology: Various technologies, from piano rolls to digital music, replaced live musicians in different settings.
      - Cost Reduction and Accessibility: Technology significantly reduced the cost of experiencing music, leading to increased opportunities for musicians and various genres.
      - Expansion of the Music Industry: Despite job losses in specific areas, technology expanded the music industry, creating jobs for musicians in diverse genres.
    - - Historical Economic Downturns: Examines historical periods of high unemployment and disputes the notion that technology alone caused these downturns.
      - OECD Perspective: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) attributes unemployment to inflexible policies rather than technological advancement.
      - Technological Progress and Growth: Argues that history shows technological progress accelerates growth, living standards, and employment.
    - - New Products and Services: Countless new products and services based on computer technology, such as iPods, medical devices, and navigation systems, have created jobs.
      - Impact of Social Networking Services: The Facebook app industry alone accounted for a significant number of full-time jobs.
      - Spending on Information Technology: Governments and businesses spent trillions on information technology, leading to job creation.
    - - Predictions of Mass Unemployment: Challenges the view of those predicting mass unemployment, emphasizing their failure to see the creation of new jobs.
      - Long-Term Social Gains: Acknowledges that while the loss of a job is devastating, the long-term social gains from new jobs are substantial.
      - Anticipating Change: Calls for flexibility, planning, and adaptability at individual, institutional, and community levels to address changing employment landscapes.
    - - Sewing Machine Analogy: Similar to historical examples, the sewing machine initially reduced jobs but led to a reduction in clothing prices, increased demand, and the creation of new jobs.
      - Computers Creating Industries: Computers and technology created new industries and millions of jobs, from electronic calculators to the World Wide Web.
      - Examples of New Jobs: Mentioned industries include cellular communications, semiconductor manufacturing, and the rise of e-commerce.
    - - Man with Shovels: Introduces the apocryphal response emphasizing the creation of jobs using shovels over modern excavation equipment.
      - Earnings and Social Factors: Considers the debate about whether technology contributes to a decline in earnings, highlighting social, political, and economic factors as potential causes.
      - Quality of Life Indicators: Researchers like Cox and Alm use measures of consumption, leisure, and time to challenge the perception of declining earnings, emphasizing improvements in the quality of life.
    - - Obama's Example: President Obama suggested that technology, such as ATMs and check-in kiosks, contributed to high unemployment rates.
      - Historical Job Losses: Examples include a decrease in bank tellers due to ATMs, a drop in telephone switchboard operators, and the disappearance of jobs related to typewriters and slide rules.
      - Web and Electronic Technologies: Job losses continued with the development of the Web, affecting travel agencies, electric meter readers, sales clerks, music stores, and the printing industry.
    - - Evolution of Working Hours: Examines the decline in working hours since the Industrial Revolution, acknowledging variations in perspectives on this trend.
      - Factors Influencing Working Hours: Considers lifestyle expectations, tax structures, and compensation policies as factors influencing working hours.
      - Technology and Quality of Life: Emphasizes the positive impact of technology on product quality, safety, convenience, and comfort, challenging assumptions about declining well-being.
    - - Luddites and Early Industrial Revolution: Luddites burned weaving looms in the 1800s due to fears of job loss. Similar fears led to the destruction of sewing machines by seamstresses and tailors.
      - 1950s-1960s Factory Automation: Presidential candidate John F. Kennedy and industry/labor groups expressed concerns about factory automation leading to increased unemployment and poverty.
      - Modern Perspectives: Social scientists extended fears to all computer technology, with critics like Jeremy Rifkin highlighting the reduction in human labor as a negative consequence.
  - - - Historical Precedents: Similar concerns arose for other technologies like the steam engine and electricity, which brought significant changes to jobs.
      - Adaptation of Education System: Historically, the education system adapted quickly to train individuals in the necessary skills for evolving technologies.
      - Changes in Skill Levels Over Time: Examines historical trends where the skill level needed for white-collar jobs fluctuated based on technological advancements.
    - - Deviation from Historical Trends: Points out a deviation in recent years where high-tech jobs went unfilled despite high unemployment rates, indicating a mismatch between available jobs and qualified applicants.
      - Role of Immigration Restrictions: Discusses the impact of immigration restrictions on qualified applicants in high-tech fields, leading to a substantial number of foreign students returning to their countries.
      - Low Interest in Computer Science and Engineering: Raises the question of why American students are not choosing computer science and engineering, despite the demand for such skills.
    - - Impact of Previous Technologies: Recalls historical instances where previous technologies, like the printing press, led to job displacement for certain skilled roles.
      - Human Imagination and Adaptation: Highlights the historical trend where human imagination and desires found new fields of work to replace those no longer needed.
      - Continued Adaptation Today: Despite the trend to automate high-skill jobs, the BLS projects an increase in professional jobs through 2018, including computer software engineering as one of the fastest-growing occupations.
    - - Performance-Support Software: Describes how performance-support software and training software empower lower-skilled workers and make training for complex jobs cheaper, faster, and easier.
      - Examples of Automated Support Systems: Gives examples of automated support systems guiding auditors, helping employees in financial institutions, and training salespeople.
      - Benefits Across Job Levels: Highlights the benefits of automated support systems, making companies more willing to hire previously unemployable individuals, including those with disabilities.
    - - Qualifications for New Jobs: New computer engineering and systems analyst jobs require a college degree, contrasting with jobs like telephone operator and factory worker.
      - Skill Levels and Job Elimination: Computers eliminate more high-skilled jobs than older technologies, prompting concerns about a divergence in job opportunities.
      - High-Paying vs. Low-Paying Jobs: Raises the question of whether jobs will diverge into high-paying positions for a highly skilled elite and fewer low-paying jobs for those without advanced education or computer skills.
    - - Jobs Requiring Little Computer Skill: The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) expects many jobs that require little to no computer skill in areas like nursing, home health aid, retail, office clerks, and food preparation.
      - Automation and High-Skilled Workers: Explores the question of whether automated systems will result in fewer jobs for high-skilled workers.
      - Potential Devaluation of Human Intelligence: Considers the possibility that human intelligence in employment could be "devalued" due to the decision-making capabilities of software.
    - - Broader Impact of Automation: Computers automate services, unlike earlier automation that primarily eliminated manufacturing jobs.
      - Challenges in Transition to New Jobs: The transition to new jobs is more challenging due to the broad impact of computers on various industries.
      - Pace of Technological Advancements: The rapid improvement in speed, capability, and cost of computing and communication technology causes more frequent job disruption, requiring continuous retraining.
    - - Software Making Decisions: Examines how software can make decisions that used to require trained human beings, potentially impacting white-collar professional jobs.
      - Automation in Design Jobs: Describes how design jobs, such as designing the electrical layout for new housing developments, have become automated through software.
      - Automation in Computer Programming: Discusses the automation of computer programming, where some programs can write other programs, reducing the need for highly trained programmers.
    - - Acknowledgment of Historical Trends: Recognizes that technology, in the past, led to new jobs and products.
      - Perceived Uniqueness of Computing Technology: Some argue that the impact of computing technology is different and more negative compared to earlier technologies.
      - Wide Range of Job Elimination: Computers eliminate a more extensive variety of jobs than previous technological advances, affecting services as well as manufacturing.
  - - - Overhead Reduction: Telecommuting reduces overhead costs for employers and increases productivity, with some studies showing gains of 15% in easily measurable areas.
      - Savings and Productivity: Replacing large offices in expensive downtown locations generates significant savings, while many employees report increased productivity and job satisfaction.
      - Global Connectivity: Facilitates easier collaboration with clients, customers, and employees globally, providing flexibility in working hours compatible with different time zones.
    - - Employee-Office Dynamics: Some employees working at the office may resent telecommuters, and corporate loyalty among telecommuters may weaken.
      - Productivity Challenges: Without immediate supervision, some individuals may be less productive, while others might overwork.
      - Home-Work Boundary Stress: Reducing the boundary between home and work can cause stress for workers and their families, and social isolation and low morale can be issues.
    - - 1980s Opposition: In the 1980s, local governments and labor unions attempted to stop telecommuting, fearing negative working conditions and exploitation.
      - Union Perspective: Unions initially opposed computer at-home work, expecting low-paid, data-entry work in poor conditions.
      - Cautionary Reminder: Early resistance highlights the importance of being cautious about restricting new phenomena before understanding their applications and benefits.
    - - Communication Technologies: Various communication technologies, such as email and video conferencing, help telecommuters stay connected with coworkers.
      - Addressing Social Isolation: Employers combat social isolation by organizing regular meetings and encouraging activities like employee sports leagues.
      - Improving Satisfaction: Companies report significant improvements in employee satisfaction when promoting interactions through professional associations and social networks.
    - - Working from Home: Telecommuting commonly involves working for an employer from a computer-equipped space at home.
      - Diverse Work Environments: Some definitions include running one's own business from home using computers, and in certain jobs like sales, the office is mobile.
      - Flexibility in Locations: Internet and wireless communications enable employees, even from large companies, to work away from traditional offices.
    - - Shift in Work Patterns: Telecommuting prompts a shift in work patterns, raising questions about its impact on the sense of community.
      - Historical Perspective: Working at home was common in the past; writers, farmers, doctors, and shopkeepers traditionally worked close to or at home.
      - Return to Local Involvement: Some experts suggest telecommuting may encourage a return to involvement in local communities, as individuals spend more time locally.
    - - Technological Changes: Computer and communication technologies have transformed the workplace, allowing for a shift in where and how people work.
      - Rise of Information Entrepreneurs: Smaller businesses and independent consultants, known as "information entrepreneurs," benefit from these technologies, promoting self-employment.
      - Global Operation: Individuals and small businesses can operate globally through the web, offering various services and products.
    - - Community Engagement: Telecommuting may encourage a return to local involvement, as individuals run errands locally and participate in community activities.
      - Communication Challenges: On the other hand, with global internet communication, home workers might stay inside, communicating with distant acquaintances, potentially hindering local community engagement.
      - Balance between Global and Local: The interplay between global communication and local involvement raises questions about striking a balance between the two.
  - - - Early Offshoring in Manufacturing: Highlights the offshore manufacturing of computer hardware and its impact on industry growth.
      - Economic Impact: Describes how offshoring in services contributes to economic growth in both source and destination countries.
      - Job Creation: Offshoring creates jobs for low- and high-skilled workers, fostering economic development on both sides.
    - - Major Shift in Jobs Requiring Presence: Emphasizes a potential shift toward jobs requiring physical presence, impacting both low- and high-skill roles.
      - Flexibility of U.S. Economy: Believes the flexibility of the U.S. economy will aid in adapting to offshoring more successfully.
      - Long-Term Gains vs. Job Loss: Acknowledges long-term gains but recognizes the personal and social disruptions caused by job loss.
    - - Historical Talent Flow: Describes the historical trend of Indian IT professionals moving to the United States.
      - Positive Results: Over time, Indian IT companies provide sophisticated services, leading to a multibillion-dollar industry.
      - Return of Talent: Trained Indian professionals returning to India for entrepreneurial opportunities, contributing to positive changes.
    - - Consumer Complaints: Customers often complain about foreign call centers, citing language barriers and lack of product familiarity.
      - Employee Skill Requirements: Companies and employees adapting to new skill requirements, with managers managing projects across borders.
      - Rising Salaries in Destination Countries: Increased demand for skilled workers in destinations like India leads to rising salaries, impacting cost-effectiveness.
    - - American Workers for Foreign Companies: Describes Americans working for foreign companies as a form of "inshoring."
      - Examples: German companies like Otto Bock Health Care and SAP employing workers in the United States.
      - U.S. Workers for Global Companies: Over 5% of U.S. workers employed by foreign companies, paying more than the U.S. median.
    - - Economics vs. Ethics: Highlights the controversy surrounding the economics and ethics of offshoring.
      - Utilitarian Perspective: Examines the impact on utility, comparing the number of hires, salaries, and opportunities for programmers in the U.S. and India.
      - Kant's Principle: Applies Kant's principle about treating people as ends in themselves, considering the limited role of hiring individuals for a specific job.
    - - Negative Viewpoints: Some see globalization as a negative result of technology and corporate profit motives.
      - Impact on Developed Countries: Viewed as leading to job losses, lower pay, and reduced standards of living in developed countries.
      - New Jobs Perspective: Acknowledges the creation of new jobs due to lower prices and increased efficiency from offshoring.
    - - Exploitation Concerns: Discusses the perception of potential exploitation by paying lower wages to foreign workers.
      - Arguments for Lower Pay: Considers arguments that paying lower wages is not inherently unethical and may respect choices made by workers.
      - Special Cases: Discusses scenarios where manipulation or unfair limitations on options might impact the ethical considerations of hiring foreign workers.
    - - BLS Report: Indicates a small percentage of mass layoffs result from offshoring, but the trend is likely to increase.
      - Alan Blinder's Perspective: Anticipates 28-42 million U.S. jobs at risk for offshoring, emphasizing a potential major workforce shift.
      - Disruption vs. Unemployment: Emphasizes offshoring as a massive transition, not necessarily leading to massive unemployment.
    - - Multiple Stakeholders: Recognizes that hiring decisions impact various stakeholders, including customers, company owners, and other employees.
      - Obligations as a Manager: Outlines the manager's obligation to make the project and the company successful, considering ethical considerations.
      - Utility Considerations: Considers the impact on utility for customers, company owners, and employees in the U.S. and the destination country.
    - - Segmentation of Offshored Jobs: Skilled work, or "knowledge work," leads to concerns about job loss, especially in high-paying roles.
      - Concerns about Job Loss: Fears about the potential loss of high-paying jobs in legal services, biotech, pharmaceutical research, etc.
      - Reasons for Offshoring: Lower labor costs, increased efficiency, and shortage of trained professionals in the United States.
    - - Consumer Complaints: Highlights customer dissatisfaction with foreign call centers due to language barriers and lack of product familiarity.
      - Employee Skill Adaptation: Discusses the need for employees to acquire new skills, such as managing projects and scheduling meetings across different time zones.
      - Rising Salaries:* Examines challenges faced by small technology companies as demand for skilled workers in destination countries increases, leading to rising salaries.
    - - Diverse Offshoring Forms: Beyond customer service, includes back-office jobs, payroll processing, and computer/network management.
      - Large-Scale Offshoring: Some companies establish offshore divisions, such as for research and development.
      - Prominent Destinations: India and China stand out, with additional destinations like Canada, Brazil, and Ireland.
    - - Economic Advantage vs. Ethical Arguments: Explores the controversy and ethical considerations surrounding offshoring.
      - Legislation Impact: Discusses legislation in various countries restricting the hiring of foreign workers and analyzes the ethics behind such laws.
      - Managerial Decision: Considers the ethical dilemmas faced by a manager in deciding whether to hire programmers in another country at a lower salary.
    - - Offshoring: Movement of jobs from wealthier to less wealthy countries, facilitated by improved transportation and communication.
      - Internet and Web Impact: Reduced "transportation" costs for information work, leading to offshoring becoming a phenomenon.
      - Examples of Offshored Jobs: Data processing, computer programming, customer service call centers, and software "help desks."
- - - - Error Rate Concerns: The Electronic Frontier Foundation and critics raise concerns about the potential errors in E-Verify, impacting legal workers and presenting privacy risks.
      - Identity Theft Risks: Critics argue that a mandatory E-Verify system could become a target for identity thieves due to its size and accessibility, posing privacy risks.
      - Balancing Act: Evaluates whether the intended purpose of E-Verify justifies its privacy risks and potential impact on the right to work.
    - - Third-Party Searches: Recommends using third-party companies for social media searches to protect applicants' privacy, ensuring that hiring companies do not see inappropriate information directly.
      - Clear Search Policies: Employers should establish clear policies about social media searches, informing applicants if negative information is provided and giving them a chance to respond.
      - Applicant Consent: Some search companies only perform social media searches with applicant consent, respecting individual privacy.
    - - Illegal Worker Verification: Employers in the U.S. use systems like E-Verify to check the legal status of job applicants, aiming to prevent the hiring of illegal immigrants.
      - Challenges and Errors: E-Verify has an initial verification rate but faces challenges, including errors in rejecting legal workers and approving some unauthorized workers.
      - Liberty Concerns: Some criticize E-Verify, stating it infringes on the liberty to work, requiring affirmative permission from the government for every hire.
    - - Cleaning Up Online Persona: Discusses how some individuals clean up their online presence before job searches, removing inappropriate content and crafting profiles similar to resumes.
      - Reliability of Online Profiles: Acknowledges that online profiles may not always provide reliable descriptions of individuals due to crafting and selective presentation.
      - Naivety and Visibility: Highlights that some individuals may be naive about the visibility of their online content, either attempting to keep it hidden or unaware of its accessibility to employers.
    - - Various Forms of Screening: Employers traditionally conducted screening, including criminal background checks. The web and social media now provide additional information on applicants.
      - Social Media Dossiers: Some employers use companies to compile extensive background checks, including information from social media, covering behaviors such as racist remarks, drug references, explicit material, and more.
      - Privacy Concerns: Privacy advocates object to social media searches, arguing that employers should limit information collection to job qualifications to maintain a balance between personal and professional lives.
    - - Common Practice: Points out that it is common for people to Google someone they are dating or meet, and similarly, employers use social media to learn about potential employees.
      - Hopes for Civility: Questions whether there can be a social convention or civility where individuals, including employers, refrain from looking at information not intended for them.
      - Culture of the Web and Social Media: Explores the feasibility and consistency of such civility in the context of the culture of the web and social media.
  - - - Protect security of proprietary information and data.
      - Prevent or investigate possible criminal activities by employees.
      - Check for violations of company policy against sending offensive or pornographic messages.
      - Investigate complaints of harassment.
      - Comply with legal requirements in heavily regulated industries.
      - Prevent personal use of employer facilities if prohibited by company policy.
      - Locate employees.
      - Find needed business information when the employee is not available.
    - - Disciplinary actions against employees for misuse of social networks are common, with employers considering the impact on company image and reputation.
      - Concerns over freedom of speech arise, but employers can establish conditions of employment regarding public statements that do not violate the First Amendment.
      - Defining boundaries between employer rights and employee freedom of expression remains a challenge.
    - - Roughly half of major companies in the U.S. monitor email or voice mail, and various tools rank employee web use for non-work purposes.
      - Monitoring purposes include security, compliance, productivity, and preventing personal use of employer facilities.
      - Privacy concerns arise as monitoring becomes more extensive, with controversies over the balance between employer rights and employee privacy.
    - - Employers use smartphones and other devices for location tracking, raising questions about the balance between security and privacy.
      - Electronic identification badges provide increased security but also allow monitoring of employee movements, creating ethical dilemmas.
      - Location tracking raises concerns in various industries, from healthcare to city governments, prompting debates on reasonable boundaries.
    - - Employers often prohibit the use of work-related tools for personal communication to avoid legal issues and embarrassment to the business.
      - The use of personal devices for work, while convenient, poses challenges in terms of system management and security for employers.
      - Government agencies face additional challenges due to email being part of the official record, potentially affecting transparency and security.
    - - Monitoring for specified purposes is generally legal, with the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) making an exception for business systems.
      - Courts often allow employers to read employee communications on company systems, especially if a clear policy is in place.
      - Privacy advocates and computer ethicists may call for revisions to the ECPA to restrict employers from reading employee emails.
    - - Employers have historically monitored employees' work, with modern electronic monitoring being an evolution of traditional methods like time clocks and supervision.
      - Electronic monitoring allows for constant, detailed, and sometimes unseen surveillance, impacting privacy and introducing new challenges.
      - The use of personal devices for work raises concerns related to security, management overhead, and the potential loss of confidential information.
    - - Tracking systems in trucks have benefits such as precise planning, increased efficiency, and reduced expenses.
      - Privacy concerns arise as drivers view the tracking as an intrusion on their autonomy, leading to micromanagement and reduced individual discretion.
      - The advantages of tracking and monitoring, including recovery of stolen vehicles, need to be weighed against the perceived privacy intrusion.