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Exam 5 Material - Coggle Diagram

- - - - All of the alleles of every gene in a population make up the gene pool.
      - A population is a group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same region and can interbreed with each other.
    - - Allele Frequency
        
        Number of copies of an allele in a population divided by the total number of alleles for that gene in a population
      - Genotype Frequency
        
        Number of individuals with a particular genotype in a population divided by the total number of individuals in a population
    - - Number of copies of an allele in a population
      - Divided by
      - The total number of all alleles for that gene in a population
    - - Number of individuals with a particular genotype in a population
      - Divided by
      - The total number of all individuals in a population
    - - No new mutations
      - No genetic drift. The population is so large allele frequencies do not change due to random sampling effects
      - No migration
      - No natural selection
      - Random mating
  - - - Changes in a population’s gene pool from generation to generation
      - Factors
        
        Mutation
        
        Natural selection
        
        Genetic drift
        
        Migration
        
        Nonrandom mating
    - - Change in one of the nucleic acids
      - Some are apparent in phenotype
      - Source of all new alleles
      - Must be in gametes to be inherited
        
        Male pollen sperm
        
        Female ovule egg
    - - Dimorphic
        
        2 phenotypes
        
        Dominant-recessive systems
      - 2 phenotypes
      - Dominant-recessive systems
      - Polymorph = many phenotypes in a population
      - Example: Aquilegia
      - Color variation
      - Spur-length variation
      - Can be due to a single nucleotide polymorphism
    - - Random loss of alleles
      - Acts most strongly in small populations relative to large
      - Bottleneck effect
        
        Large population diminished suddenly
        
        Natural catastrophe
        
        Migration
        
        May increase in size again but unlikely to regain original diversity
    - - Plants “choose” their mates
      - Pollinator vectors
        
        Pollination syndromes
      - Some of the individuals reproduce more than others
        
        Based on individual phenotypes
    - - Male-male competition
        
        Pollen tubes can interfere with one another
        
        Excess of pollen grains
      - Female choice
        
        Barriers on stigma surface preventing germination
    - - Movement of alleles into and out of a population
        
        Immigration
        
        Into
        
        Emigration
        
        Out of
      - Can be impeded by:
        
        The environment
        
        Life history
      - Repercussions for:
        
        GMO and climate change speciation.
    - - Bottleneck from long distance dispersal
      - Followed by adaptive radiation
      - Example: Hawaiian lobeliads
    - - One allele selectively advantageous
      - In this example, 2 (triangle) has more vigorous offspring
      - Over time, individuals with the 2 genotype are able to reproduce more and grow in numbers.
      - The overall vigor of the population grows, so does the population size.
    - - Selection by humans
        
        Increased frequency of desired trait
        
        Elimination of undesired traits
      - Crop breeders for thousands of years
      - Example Brassica
  - - - Steps Summarized:
        
        Find your Min & Max values
        
        Determine the number of bins
        
        Count the number of observations for each bin
        
        Draw bars for each bin with the frequency
    - - Death does not mean natural selection has occurred
      - Differential survival
      - Survival due to phenotypes that are heritable
        
        Phenotype coded by genotype
    - - Within a population there is allelic variation arising from various factors such as mutations causing differences in DNA sequences
      - Distinct alleles may encode proteins of differing functions
      - Some alleles may encode proteins that enhance an individual’s survival or reproductive capacity
      - Individuals with beneficial alleles are more likely to survive and reproduce
      - Over the course of many generations, allele frequencies of many different genes may change through natural selection
      - This significantly alters the characteristics of a species
      - The net result of natural selection is a population that is better adapted to its environment and/or more successful at reproduction
- - - - Population size (N)
      - Exponential growth
        
        J-shaped curve
        
        Unlimited resources
      - Logistic growth
        
        S-shaped curve
        
        Typical of a population that self regulates.
        
        Has a carrying capacity (K)
    - - r = intrinsic growth rate
      - N = population size
      - K = carrying capacity
      - dN/dt = population change over time
      - Exponential growth
        
        dN over dt equals r times N
      - Logistic growth
        
        dN over dt equals r times N times the quantity one minus N divided by K
    - - Exponential growth
        
        dN/dt = rN
      - Logistic growth
        
        dN/dt = rN[(K-N)/K] =
        rN(1-N/K)
    - - r-selected
        
        Grow exponentially
        
        Disturbed areas
        
        Weedy
        
        Annuals
        
        Little investment in defense
        
        Many, small fruits
      - K-selected
        
        Fluctuate around carrying capacity
        
        Fairly stable habitats
        
        Perennials invest in defenses
        
        Resource-intensive fruits
    - - Plants must make trade-offs due to environmental necessities
      - Many strategies exist
      - Grime’s model
        
        Stress
        
        Resource Availability
        
        Water
        
        Nutrients
        
        Light
        
        Growth Inhibitors
        
        Toxins
        
        Temperature
        
        Disturbance
        
        Biotic
        
        Herbivory
        
        Pathogens
        
        Anthropogenic
        
        Abiotic
        
        Fire
        
        Wind
        
        3 life stages
        
        C- competitors
        
        S- stress tolerators
        
        R- ruderals
  - - - x = age
      - Nx= number of individuals alive at age x
      - Sx= proportion of individuals of age x that survive to age x+1;
        
        Nx+1/Nx
      - lx= proportion of individuals that survive from birth (age 0) to age x;
        
        Nx/N0
      - Fx= average number of offspring born to a female while she is age x
      - lx(Fx) = average number of offspring per capita at age x
      - lx(Fx)x = average number of offspring per capita at time x, weighted by age x
    - - How long did individuals survive
      - Visual representation of survivorship
      - Type I, typical of K-selected species
      - Type III, typical of r-selected species
      - Dependent on environment
      - Same species can display all 3
    - - Survivorship curves are plotted logarithmically
      - Take survivorship (lx) and multiply by 1000
      - Take the log10 of this value
      - Plot against age to produce a figure
      - Example: Type I curve
  - - - a group of actually or potentially interacting species living in the same location.
      - bound together by a shared environment and a network of influence each species has on the other.
      - factors affecting interactions include
        
        abiotic environment
        
        biotic interactions that occur between species
    - - Range of interactions
      - Beneficial interactions +
      - Negative interaction -
      - Facilitation (+/+)
        
        Benefits both
        
        Mutualism
        
        Pollination
      - Commensalism (0/+)
        
        Benefits one, neutral to the other
      - Amensalism (0/-)
        
        Negative to one & neutral to other
      - Competition (-/-)
        
        Both are negatively impacted
        
        Competition for resources
      - Predation (+/-)
        
        Herbivory
        
        Parasitism
    - - Predator
        
        P
        
        Negative impact on prey
        
        Positively impacted by prey
      - Prey
        
        N
        
        Positive impact on predator
        
        Negatively impacted by predator
      - Population sizes are influenced by each other
    - - r = intrinsic growth rate
      - N = population size
      - K = carrying capacity
      - dN/dt = population change over time
      - Exponential growth
      - Logistic growth
      - Can similar model predator-prey growth and the impact each has on the other
    - - At low prey and predator population sizes, prey increase exponentially
      - As more food for predators is available, predator survival and reproductive success increases, resulting in predator population growth following that of their prey
      - As predator populations increase, prey death rate exceeds birth rate, resulting in prey decline
      - As prey number declines, there is not enough food to sustain a high predator population and thus predator death rate exceeds that of birth rate
    - - dN/dt = rN-aNP
        
        dN/dt=rate of change with time of the prey population
        
        r=intrinsic rate of increase for prey
        
        N=number of prey individuals
        
        a=predator’s per capita attack rate
        
        Number of prey eaten per predator per unit time
        
        P= number of predator individuals
      - dP/dt = faNP-qP
        
        dP/dt= rate of change with time of predator population
        
        f=constant, indicating predator’s efficiency at converting the prey it has eaten into new predators
        
        q=predator’s per capita mortality rate