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Descriptive Statistics - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Data coding. Coding is the process of converting data into numeric format.
        
        A codebook is a comprehensive document
        containing detailed description of each variable in a research study, items or measures for that
        variable, the format of each item (numeric, text, etc.), the response scale for each item i.e.,
        whether it is measured on a nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio scale; whether such scale is a five-point, seven-point, or some other type of scale), and how to code each value into a numeric
        format.
        
        Data entry. Coded data can be entered into a spreadsheet, database, text file, or directly into a statistical program like SPSS.
        
        Missing values. Missing data is an inevitable part of any empirical data set. Respondents may not answer certain questions if they are ambiguously worded or too
        sensitive.
        
        During data analysis, the default mode of handling missing values in most software programs is to simply drop the entire observation containing even a single missing value, in a technique called listwise deletion.
        
        Hence, some software programs allow the option of replacing missing values with an estimated value via a process called imputation.
        
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- - - - The arithmetic mean (often simply called the "mean") is the simple average of all values in a given distribution.
        
        The second measure of central tendency, the median, is the middle value within a range of values in a distribution.
        
        Lastly, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution of values.
        
        Note that any value that is estimated from a sample, such as mean, median, mode, or any of the later estimates are called a statistic.
        
        Dispersion refers to the way values are spread around the central tendency, for example, how tightly or how widely are the values clustered around the mean.
        
        Two common measures of dispersion are the range and standard deviation.
        
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- - - - Although they may seem like two hypotheses, H 0 and H 1 actually represent a single hypothesis since they are direct opposites of each other.
        
        The probability
        that a statistical inference is caused pure chance is called the p-value.
        
        The p-value is compared with the significance level (a), which represents the maximum level of risk that we are willing to take that our inference is incorrect.
        
        The degree of freedom is the number of values that can vary
        freely in any calculation of a statistic.
        
        A correlation matrix is a matrix that lists the variable names along the first row and the first column and depicts bivariate correlations between pairs of variables in the appropriate cell in the matrix.
        
        If the correlations involve variables measured using interval scales, then this specific type of correlations are called Pearson product moment correlations.
        
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