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Chapter 9, chapter 10!, chapter 11, chapter 12, molecular Biilogy of the…
Chapter 9
genetic testing technology
blood tests
fetoscoopy *
ultrasound
chorionic villus sampling
amnniocentesis *
new born screening
genetic testing
Mendels Law
Hippocratess idea of pangenes
problems
Reproductive cells are not composed of particles from somatic cells
changes in somatic cells do not influence gametes
some traits that disappear in one genearation can reappear in later generations.
Heredity
transition of trait from one generation to the next.
Genetics
gregor Mendels and peas
traits and characteristics
true breeding
hybrids
genetic cross
:
laws of genetics mendels 4 hypotheses and 2 laws
for each character, an organism ingerits two lleles of a gene, one from each parent.
an orgnism that has two different alleles for a gege is said to be heterozygou for that gene
an organism that has two idetical alleles for a gene is said to be homozygous for that gene
if the two alleles of an inherited pair differ, then one determines the organisms appearance and is called the dominant allele and the other has no noticeable affect on the organisms appearance and is called the recessive allele.
there are alternative versions of genes (called alleles) that count for variatons in inherited charaters.
a sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because allele pairs separate (segregate) from each other during the production of gametes this statement is called the law of segregation
punnent squares
all possible combons of allales that could occur when gametes combine
Designate dominate allele (upper case)
Designate recessive allele (Lower case)
Pick a letter to represent gene (G)
Genotypes vs. Phenotypes
loci homologous chromosomes bear the alleles for each character.
every gene has a physical location on a chromosome called its locus
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pv3Kj0UjiLE
genotpye is the genetic represention in the chromosones represented by letters
1.2.1
mono hybrid cross
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dihybrid cross
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pheotyoes represented as more physical trait for example fur.
3.1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dN9SZHO6Wjg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i-0rSv6oxSY&t=10s
incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes
Variation son Mendels law
incomplete dominance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJHGfbW55l0
codominace
ABO Blood group
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9O5JQqlngFY
IA & IB ARE codimant
Pleiotrophy
sickly cell
a homozygous sickle cell individual
produces sickle cell abnormal hemoglobin
the abnormal hemoglobin crystalizes, causing red blood cells to become sickle shaped
the mutliple effects of sickle cells
other effects
damange to organs
polygenic inheritance
humssn skin color
nature vs nurture
both play a role in genetics
sex chromosomes and sex linked genes
Autosomes vs. sex chromosomes
haplo - diploid sysytem
temperature dependendt sex determination
sex linked gene
x linked genes
can chage based in the famale is hetero or homo if the male is dominant or ressecive.
most x linked human disorders are due t recessice alleles and thefore are seen mostly in males
a female msut recive the allee from both parents to be affected
a male reciving a single x linked recessive allele from his mother will ahve the disorder
study male lineages w/Y chromosomes
in 2003 genetics discovered 8% of makes currently living in central asia
the chromosome theorty of inheritance
chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis
genes occypy soecific loci (posiions )on chrimosomes
violations of medelian genetics
linked genes
crossing over between homologous chromosomes produces new combinatins of alleles in gametes
% recombinant offspring = Recombination frequency
seperation of linked genes by corossing over= recombinant gametes
act as if PL instead its one gene being passed on passed on as a unit.
re3combination frequencies can be used to map the relative positions of genes on chromosomes.
such a genetic map based on recombinnt frequencies is called a linkage map
a genetic map is an ordered list of the genentic loci along a chromosome
rule of multiplecation
and
multiplicastion
or
addition
pedigrees
genetic traits can be tracked through family pedigrees
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gd09V2AkZv4
dominant trait
wild type
polydactyly
hypercholesterolemia
huntingtons
achondroplasia
recessive
mutant typoe
albinism
sickle sell
cystic fibrosis
chapter 10!
the flow of gentiec information from DNA to RNA to protein
transcription
gene
not all enzymes are protiens
not all protiens are enzymes
niot all genens make protiens
triplet code
codones
genetic code
messenger RNA (mrna)
RNA splicing
connect exons
add cap and tail
get ride of introns
translation
in the cytoplasm
ribosome
transfer rna (trna)
anticodon on one end
specific amino acid attachment site at other
ribosomal rna (rna) + proteins
binding sites for trna and mrna
initiation
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https://youtu.be/oefAI2x2CQM?si=9zeY1_h84bfdkTeo
transcription
translation
aminoacid attachment
initiation
elongation
termination
mutagens
mutations
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the genetics of viruses and bacteria
lytic cycle
prophage
RNA Viruses
corrona
viruses
plant viruses
vaccines
Emerging viruses
HIV
human immunodeficiency virus )that causes
AIDS
Retrovirus
reverse transcriptase
Zika
Prions
misfolded protiens
causes your protiens to misfold if consumed throight meat
kuru
chronic wasting disease
bacteria
3 mechanisms
transformation
conjugation
transduction
F factor fertility
https://youtu.be/QS9BDeGj85Q?si=zFZlV_CEdtNFby3F
DNA replication
specific paring
both directions simotaneously
5 to 3 of new starand
Enzymes
dna polymerase
errors are mutations
mutagens
UV radiatiion, X-rays, cigarette smoke, benzoyly viruses, paracytes
dna ligase
okazaki fragments
https://youtu.be/Qqe4thU-os8?si=Aibvk36OEm7zIuMg
the structure of the genetic material
Genetic material
nucleic acids
only 4
tests to prove nuclei acids
frederick griffith 1928
soemthing was being transfered from the living strain tio the living strain that cuased the death of the mice
1952 Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
bacteriophages / phages
protenns 20 AAs
Macromolecule: nucleic acids
Polynucleotides
monomers: nucletides
2 types
rna ribose AUCG
dna (deoxyribose ATCG
Polymers of nucleotides
the nucleiotides are joined covelent bonds:
sugar -phosphate backbone
:
Double Helix
A-T C-G purine Pyrimidine H-bonds
DNA STRUCTURE
Pratial Chemical structure
Watson, Crick, Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin
chapter 11
control of gene expression
Gene
gene regulation
regulatory protiens
ooperons
inducible vs repressible operons
activators
Eukaryotes
Most genes off
Alternative RNA Sploicing
humans >90 protien coding genes
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Transcription factors
protiens assisting rna polmerarase
https://youtu.be/h_1QLdtF8d0?si=phYYrXBOYFROMO-W
cells differwntiate
Histones plus dna to the nucleosomes
x chromosome inactivation
Barr body
inactive x chromosome shtat packed tighter than a chromosoema dnshoved off tot ehs idme and is very clkear undna microscope.
packed up dna no expression
Epigenetic inheritance
facts
Functional RNAs
functional rnas
mirRNAs
degradencompleting mRNAs
Block translation of partially compelmenting mRNAs
https://youtu.be/j-zTy6vOP3M?si=pb9R8JmB9PAeb8hk
siRNAs
Formation of centromere
methylation for gamete formation
RNA interference of translation
https://youtu.be/QLhiG7D2UT8?si=Jpj8_dqr1iVCHtJ6
another small fraction is genes for rRna and tRNA
Junk DNA
1.5 % human genome codes for protiens
Homeotic gene
animal develope=ment controlled by series of rnas and protiens
nucleic acid hybridization
DNA microarray
https://youtu.be/NgRfc6atXQ8?si=v-m5PjrqrnrXUd0-
https://youtu.be/0qoqzErrae4?si=sZbM6Q8OTGWclTCZ
cell signaling
tellone cell to anither scell to turn on its dna tanscription of a specific geene
clonging of plants and animals
totipotent
regeneration
clone
plants
fragment and putting them in a proper envoirnment to grow and can grow on ther iwn
animals
nuclear transplantation
therapeutic Cloning
adult stem cells
embryonic stem cells
https://youtu.be/5ffl-0OYVQU?si=CdM4lIRd5DTsvM3e
the gentic basis of cancer
cancer
Proto-oncogene to oncogene
https://youtu.be/pOyKFgGKmHE?si=F9iCo3jLGSnTsbDU
tumor suppressor genes
cancers result froma series of gentic changes
https://youtu.be/k50yMwEOWGU?si=CDkBqkWxQTE5Dfdc
chapter 12
genomics and Bioinformatics
genomics studying and comparison of sets of genes
human Genome prodject HGP
whole genome shotgun sequences
bioformatics
intesection of computer sicnec ena dhow genomes can evolve intom another genomes gene.
proeomics
studying the protiens in the genes and how they cnage of are used differently in their parts
DNA Tecnology and genomics
gene edditing and cloning
biotechnology
GMOs
Recombinant DNA
dna technology
Gene cloining
bacterial plasmids (vector) w/ recombinant DNA
restriction enzymes and restriction fragments
dna ligase
nucleic acid probe
complementary DNA (cdna)
https://youtu.be/VT_nNVO95eI?si=JS5CRTv5c4cz5ZJv
dna in nucleousmrna in cytoplasm
test tube
reverse transcriptase
additional reverse transcriptase sythesis of new dna strand
sdna stand begins synthesis
breakdown of rna
direction of synthesis
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crispr-cas9
aystem allows resurchers to target a specific gene in a living cell for removal or editing .
https://youtu.be/qc6xgb4VXl0?si=pxkqoKMtDZLiwb1I
gentically modified organisms
genetticly modified organisms
lots of vegetables and fruites to redue diseases and produce better friuts and sich with less seeds and others.
transgenic organisms
8 different genes from different species or at least 2
vaccines
genetic tecniques used to interact with virises to keep us from harm
DNA profiling
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) w/primers
a method that taes advantage of the dna. using primers to find missing parts. usiing a dna polymerase into making copies by heating up our dna breaking the hydrogen boned exposing them to the polymerase and stick to build the coplimentary sequence.
https://youtu.be/a5jmdh9AnS4?si=Q-mFBiC7Duck-r9p
https://youtu.be/CDw4WPng2iE?si=7LcMKS_FnhmbT3Mz
https://youtu.be/hO3mTqrEeq8?si=leKSUEUCwaL-mKqd
https://youtu.be/ZDZUAleWX78?si=zZJA0KzlY6Rrq2Ft
seperate dna by size negativly charged to pull dna throught the gel.
molecular Biilogy of the gene
