Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Human Physiology 101 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Each nephron has a glomerulus which is the site of blood filtration. The glomerulus is a NETWORK OF CAPILLARIES (that the blood FLOWS THROUGH) surrounded by the glomerular capsule (or Bowman's capsule). As blood flows through the glomerulus, blood pressure pushes water and solutes from the capillaries into the capsule through a filtration membrane.
        
        Works because as blood pressure increases blood volume is increasing. And as blood pressure increases the amount of water that is filtered out of the capillaries in the glomerulus increases.
  - - - Released from the pituitary gland at the base of the brain
    - - Helps control the amount of water the kidneys reabsorb and therefore helps control blood pressure
      - Tells kidneys and colon to increase the amount of sodium released into the bloodstream and the amount of potassium released in your urine (does it increase the amount of potassium lost?). It is lost though that is true
        
        By increase the amount of sodium in the blood this causes the body to retain water in your blood (also by ADH and osmoreceptors) which increases blood volume
      - Triggered by the falling of blood pressure
    - - it facilitates the reaction to split angiotensinogen into pieces one of which is angiotensin I (this is inactive)
        
        This is split by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which your lungs make. One of those pieces is angiotensin II, an active hormone.
        
        Angiotensin II causes the muscular walls of small arteries (arterioles) to constrict, increasing blood pressure. Angiotensin II also triggers your adrenal glands to release aldosterone and your pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin).
        
        Basically it triggers the release of both ALD and ADH
- - - - epidermis (top)
        
        made of three types of cells: melanocytes, keratinocytes and Langerhans
      - dermis (middle)
      - hypodermis (bottom)
        
        fatty layer
      - hair bulb has veins and capillaries going to it, goes through the sebaceous gland
        
        arrector pili muscles or hair erector muscles are tiny muscles connecting each hair follicle to the skin. when it contracts it causes the hair to stand erect and forms a goosebump
        
        hair made of keratin
      - glands
        
        Sudoriferous glands = sweat glands but it is umbrella terms and there are two types
        
        eccrine glands = normal sweat gland that opens into skin
        
        apocrine glands = sweat glands that open into hair follicles
        
        mammary glands, BOTH males and females have them but in people assigned female at birth mammary glands produce milk after giving birth
        
        ceruminous glands, glands that secrete ear wax the ear
      - Provides physical protection against bacteria and germs.
        
        Absorbs and helps heal abrasions, cuts and other injuries.
        
        Cushions and protects your body from infection.
        
        Protects you from the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays and sunburn.
        
        Excretes sebum, sweat and other waste from your body.
        
        Regulates your body temperature and allows you to stay cool.
        
        Helps you feel heat, cold and detect other sensations.
        
        Synthesizes vitamin D.
  - - - (1) contraction
        
        closes open wounds as the interaction between cells and matrix result in movement of tissue towards the center of the wound
        
        what is the epidermal and dermal matrix exactly not too sure but not the cells
      - (2) connective tissue matrix deposition
        
        process by which collagen, proteoglycans and attachment proteins are deposited to form a new extracellular matrix
      - (3) epithelialization
        
        epithelial cells or other parts of the skin/integumentary system (sebaceous glands, hair follicles) lose contact inhibition (when you're growing and the cells know to stop because it touches another of (the same?) cell and there is not enough space) and by the process of epiboly begin to migrate into the wound area
        
        also cells in the basal layer or very lowest layer of the epidermis rapidly multiply or proliferate to provide additional epithelial cells
        
        :red_flag:specific interaction of growth factors and their names?
- - - - The surface of the brain is known as the cerebral cortex. The surface of the cortex appears bumpy thanks to the grooves and folds of the tissue. Each groove is known as a sulcus, while each bump is known as a gyrus.
      - spinal cord nerves:
        
        8 cervical nerves
        
        12 thoracic nerves
        
        5 lumbar nerves
        
        5 sacral nerves (pelvis, where the sacrum is)
        
        1 coccygeal nerve (where the coccyx is
- - - - Protein(large)/Polypeptides(small) (made of amino acids)
        
        Water soluble but receptors on surface of cell
        
        Triggers signaling cascade = secondary messenger
      - Steroids
        
        Made from lipids (usually cholesterol) so lipid soluble and receptors located inside the cell
        
        Primary messenger (will go in cytoplasm or even nucleus to affect transcription or translation)
      - Tyrosine Derivatives (come from the amino acid tyrosine)
        
        Special because one specific amino acid and can act like steroids OR protein/polypeptide hormones
- - - - found in bone marrow and lymphoid tissues
  - - - First mechanism for host defense found in ALL multicellular organisms
      - Includes natural barriers like skin and mucus, phagocytes (that eat things), cell enzymes, cell receptors, effector cells and more (plus the inflammatory response)
        
        The most external layer of the epidermis (skin) mainly consists of keratinocytes which are tightly linked by desmosomes and embedded in a layer of proteins. They act as a physical barrier but also express pattern recognition receptors and are capable of producing cytokines and antimicrobial peptides that induce a inflammatory cascade and microbial destruction - respectively. aka chemically protecting the person
        
        sebaceous glands associated with hair follicles produce large amounts of fatty acids which create an acidic environment that is hostile to microorganisms.
        
        Mucous membranes in the digestive, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts have a continuous epithelium that prevents microorganisms from entering the host.
        
        these epithelial cells produce antimicrobial peptides such as defensins. The production of defensins is also enhanced by the action of inflammatory cytokines (aka inflammatory response triggers the production of these antimicrobial peptides
        
        Epithelial cells in the gastrointestinal and respiratory mucosa have cilia, an extension of the cell surface which has the ability to move back and forth and thus keep the mucosa clear of mucus, dust, and possible invading microorganisms.
        
        Lymphocytes in the skin are involved in host defense through cytokine production, phagocyte activation and, destruction of infected and tumoral cells.
        
        the mucosal tissue in the nasal passages and oropharynx is always colonized by a multitude of bacteria (cause airborne threats and possibly pathogenic microorganisms come into the airways all the time)
        
        a coarse filter consisting of hair and mucus will obstruct the entry of material exceeding a certain size limit.
        
        Combined with a rapid sneezing reflex, potentially hazardous or allergenic material will immediately be removed from the airways or trapped in the mucus. Despite being very sticky and viscous, the mucus also contains many antibiotic factors such as antimicrobial peptides or oxidizing enzymes. Thus, mucus not only constitutes a physical trap but also has considerable antibiotic properties.
      - Is faster, minutes to hours
    - - Second layer of defense and involved targeted responses against previously recognized specific microorganisms or antigens (vaccines)
      - Takes longer, days or weeks
- - - - external
        
        penis
        
        scrotum (skin layer outside of the testicle)
        
        testicles
        internal
        
        urethra
        
        pubic bone
        
        vas defrens (tube that runs from the testicles to the urethra)
        
        bladder
        
        seminal vesicle (semen) behind the bladder
        
        ejaculatory duct
        
        prostate
        
        epididymis (just on the testicles connected to the tube)
        
        rectum
    - - external
        
        mons pubis (bone at top)
        
        clitoris
        
        labia majora (outside)
        
        urethral opening
        
        labia minora (inside)
        
        hymen (very inside)
        
        vaginal opening
        internal
        
        vagina
        
        cervix
        
        uterus (the top hollow part called corpus)
        
        fallopian tube
        
        ovary
  - - - Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Your pituitary gland makes FSH. FSH is necessary to produce sperm (spermatogenesis).
      - Luteinizing hormone (LH). Your pituitary gland also makes LH. LH is necessary to continue the process of spermatogenesis.
      - Testosterone. Testosterone is the main sex hormone in people AMAB. It helps you develop certain characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat distribution, bone mass and sex drive (libido).
    - - estrogen
      - proestrogen
      - Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Your pituitary gland makes FSH. FSH is necessary to develop egg cells called ova.
        
        LH(?) stimulates the production of estradiol and progesterone by the ovaries - LH = luteinizing hormone
        
        estradiol and progesterone are steroid hormones
        
        help regulate the menstrual cycle
        
        the ovaries also produce inhibin as well as estradiol and progestrerone.
        
        inhibin inhibits FSH production by the pituitary gland in a negative feedback loop
        
        something the hypothalamus secretes stimulates the pituitary gland to produce FSH and LH which stimulate follicle (where the ova are produced) growth in the ovaries and a surge in LH triggers ovulation.
      - the front (anterior) section of the pituitary gland also produces the hormone prolactin (PRL) which stimulates the production of milk by the mammary glands following child-birth
        
        Prolactin levels are regulated by the hypothalamic hormones prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) and prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), which is now known to be dopamine. PRH stimulates the release of prolactin and PIH inhibits it.
      - The posterior pituitary releases the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth. The uterine smooth muscles are not very sensitive to oxytocin until late in pregnancy when the number of oxytocin receptors in the uterus peaks. Stretching of tissues in the uterus and cervix stimulates oxytocin release during childbirth. Contractions increase in intensity as blood levels of oxytocin rise via a positive feedback mechanism until the birth is complete
  - - - problem affecting a woman’s uterus: when the kind of tissue that normally lines the uterus grows somewhere else. aka the ovaries, behind the uterus, on the bowels or on the bladder
        
        cause pain, infertility, and very heavy periods. The pain is usually in the abdomen, lower back, or pelvic areas. Some women have no symptoms at all, and having trouble getting pregnant may be the first sign they have endometriosis.
    - - Uterine fibroids are the most common noncancerous tumors in women of childbearing age. Fibroids are made of muscle cells and other tissues that grow in and around the wall of the uterus, or womb.
    - - Cervical cancer begins in the cervix, which is the lower, narrow end of the uterus.
      - Ovarian cancer
      - Uterine cancer
      - Vaginal cancer begins in the vagina, which is the hollow, tube-like channel inside the body
      - Vulvar cancer begins in the vulva, the outer part of the female genital organs.
    - - HIV can be spread through breast milk, so mothers in the US who have HIV should not breast-feed their babies
    - - IC is a chronic bladder condition resulting in recurring discomfort or pain in the bladder. More common in women
    - - happens when a woman’s ovaries or adrenal glands produce more male hormones than normal
        
        at increased risk of developing diabetes and heart disease. Symptoms may include:
        
        infertility
        
        pelvic pain
        
        excess hair growth on the face, chest, stomach, thumbs or toes
        
        baldness or thinning hair
        
        acne, oily skin or dandruff
        
        patches of thickened dark brown or black skin
    - - causes:
        
        bacteria
        
        parasites
        
        viruses
      - If you have an STD caused by bacteria or parasites, your health care provider can treat it with antibiotics or other medicines. If you have an STD caused by a virus, there is no cure, but antiviral medication can help control symptoms
      - Syphilis is caused by the bacterial spirochete Treponema pallidum.
        
        It first appears as a painless sore, called a chancre, on the skin or mucous membranes of the genitals
        
        If untreated, the chancre disappears, and the person develops a rash on the genitals (secondary syphilis). Subsurface nodules, called gumma, appear in the tertiary stage of the disease. The organism invades the nervous system at an early stage, but neurologic symptoms, including behavioral aberrations, often do not occur until the infection has been present for several years.
      - Gonorrhea is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, a type of bacteria with an extremely short incubation period, making it difficult to interrupt the chain of transmission
        
        main symptom of gonorrhea in males is pain or burning during urination, although there also may be a discharge from the penis.
        
        about 50% of infected females are asymptomatic but in symptomatic cases the symptoms are also pain or burning during urination and possibly discharge
        
        Gonorrhea spreads locally along mucosal surfaces, ascending the urethra in the male and either the vagina or the urethra in the female. The bacteria may also be disseminated through the blood to more-distant sites; systemic manifestations include headache and, if untreated, arthritis or heart disease.
      - Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU) is caused by a variety of microorganisms, but is most commonly attributed to Chlamydia species, which also cause lymphogranuloma venereum
        
        pain and burning on urination but generally milder than gonorrhea and can be treated with antibiotics
      - Genital herpes is caused by two types of herpes simplex virus: type 1 (HSV-1; the cause of cold sores of the lips and mouth) and type 2 (HSV-2).
        
        first appears as groups of small blisters on the surface of the penis in men and the vulva in women
        
        The initial infection clears spontaneously within two to three weeks, but herpes commonly recurs with varying frequency thereafter, burning or itching at the infection site containing the lesions.
        
        Herpes is generally transmitted only when an active lesion is present
        
        Active herpes can be fatal to infants during delivery; in a large percentage of cases, it causes blindness or brain damage in newborns.
        
        In women, genital herpes has also been associated with cervical cancer. Antiviral treatment early in the course of the disease may decrease the duration of symptoms.
      - Chancroid, also called soft sore, is caused by the bacteria Haemophilus ducreyi and occurs chiefly in developing countries
        
        producing small red pustules that burst to form painful ulcers, and the disease can be diagnosed by culturing bacteria from these ulcers. Unlike syphilis, which it may resemble, chancroid is a purely localized disease of the genitals. Treatment is with antibiotics.
      - Lymphogranuloma venereum, which is common in the tropics but very rare in temperate regions, is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis
        
        a transient (passes quickly only stays for a brief amount of time) genital blister is followed by regional inflammation of the lymph nodes. If untreated, this condition may progress to genital elephantiasis. Treatment is with broad-specturm antibiotics. Surgical removal of diseased tissue may be necessary
      - Genital warts also called condyloma acuminata, are caused by human papillomavirus, which is related to the virus that produces common warts.
      - Granuloma inguinale is caused by infection with Calymmatobacterium granulomatis.
        
        Initial symptoms are painless papules that become ulcerated, ultimately forming granulomatous masses that tend to bleed easily. These lesions occur on the genitals, thighs, and groin of infected persons and may resemble syphilis lesions. Cancer has also been associated with granuloma inguinale. Treatment is with antibiotics.
      - Yeast infections or infections with the yeast Candida albicans in men almost always are acquired through sexual contacts, but in women, in whom candidiasis is much more common, the infection can be acquired in a variety of ways.
        
        in men it involves the surface of the glans penis, causing intense burning or itching
        
        in women, candidiasis frequently produces vaginal and vulval irritation, production of a thick white discharge, or pain during urination
        
        the diagnosis is made by culturing yeast from the involved area; treatment is by local antifungal agents.
      - Trichomoniasis. Infection with the flagellate protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis is usually, but not exclusively, spread by sexual contact
        
        The condition is commonly asymptomatic in males. In females trichomoniasis has a variety of manifestations, including vaginal discharge, irritation of the genitals, and pain during intercourse or urination. Both sexes may experience complications, such as cystitis and urethritis; males may also develop prostatitis and epididymitis. Treatment with metronidazole, an antibacterial and antiprotozoal agent, is standard
      - Puerperal infection
        A common cause of death during childbirth before the widespread use of modern sanitary practices and antibiotics, puerperal infections occur when bacteria, usually Streptococcus, invade wounds in the birth canal. The infection may cause abscess formation and can involve all of the genital organs and adjacent blood vessels, reproductive structures, and other abdominal tissues. Treatment consists of antibiotics, supportive therapy, and occasionally surgical drainage of abscesses
      - Tuberculosis
        Primary tuberculosis of the reproductive system is rare and is usually brought from elsewhere in the body through the bloodstream. Nodular or pustular lesions on the penis or scrotum of men or the vulva of women, resembling the gumma (nodules) of tertiary syphilis, may appear one week after tubercular infection. The nodules can become ulcerated, resembling the primary chancre of syphilis. Tubercular abscesses can also develop in most of the internal reproductive organs. Treatment consists of administration of antibiotics. As the incidence of tuberculosis has declined in the developed countries, tuberculosis of the reproductive system has become exceedingly rare.
- - - - ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
    - - TAC (tricarboxylic acid cycle)
      - Produces GTP which is equal to ATP in terms of energy