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Exam 4 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Based on molecular data
      - Bisexual
      - Radially symmetric
      - Multiple whorls of petals
      - Androecium
      - Gynoecium
    - - Archaefructus sinensis
      - Likely herbaceous
      - Likely aquatic
      - 124.6bya
    - - Amborellaceae
      - Amborella
      - Amborella trichopoda
      - New Caledonia
      - Dioecious
      - shrub
    - - Flowers indefinite in number of parts →flowers have few parts that are definite in number
      - Floral axis shortened
      - Ovary superior → inferior
      - Radial symmetry
  - - - Petals are located above the sepals on the receptacle.
      - Are leaf-like but contain pigments other than chlorophyll.
      - Attract pollinators.
      - Collectively are a corolla.
      - Sepals and petals collectively are a perianth.
      - Absent in wind-pollinated species.
    - - All the sepals together are referred to as the calyx.
      - May be colorful.
      - Protect the flower bud as it develops.
      - Are modified leaves that surround maturing flower parts.
      - Sepals are the outermost floral appendage.
    - - Incomplete flowers lack at least one appendage
      - Complete flowers have all four floral appendages:
      - A flower is a stem with leaf-like structures.
    - - Stamens occur above the petals.
      - Are collectively the androecium.
      - Two parts: anther and its supporting filament.
      - Diploid anther cells (microsporocytes) undergo meiosis to produce four microspores.
      - Microspores
    - - Megasporophyll
      - Carpels, collectively, are the gynoecium.
      - Stigma catches pollen grains.
      - Style elevates the stigma.
      - Ovary where megaspores are produced.
      - Within the ovary are placentae bearing small structures called ovules
      - After fertilization of the egg, ovules mature into seeds.
  - - - Lacking a whorl of sexual organs
      - Hermaphroditic = perfect
      - Monoecious = male flowers and female flowers on the same plant
      - Dioecious = male flowers on plant, female flowers on different plant
    - - Inflorescence
      - Taxonomic importance
      - Various ways to ensure cross pollination
  - - - Color
      - Smell, organic volatiles
      - Shape
      - Bloom time
      - Rewards, eg nectar
    - - Some colors are more attractive than others
      - Color requires resource
      - Omit when unnecessary
      - Some are in the uv spectrum
    - - Signal to pollinators
      - Sometimes use own preferences and sexual pheremones
      - Some common chemicals
    - - Floral symmetry
      - Actinomorphic
      - Zygomorphic
    - - diurnal
      - nocturnal
    - - Nectar
      - Pollen
      - Oil
  - - - Abiotic:
        
        Anemophily (wind)
        
        Hydrophily (water)
      - biotic
        
        Melittophily (bee)
        
        Psychophily (butterfly)
        
        Phalenophily (moth)
        
        Myophily, sapromyophily (fly)
        
        Ornithophily (bird)
        
        Chiropterophily (bat)
        
        Cantharophily (beetle)
    - - Wind
      - No bright colors, special odors, or nectar
      - Small
      - Most have no petals
      - Stamens and stigmas exposed to air currents
      - Large amount of pollen
      - Pollen smooth, light, easily airborne
      - Stigma feathery to catch pollen from wind
    - - Water
      - Copious pollen
      - Small flowers
      - Long filaments for pollen transport on surface
      - Oblong, heavier pollen for submarine transport
    - - Bee
      - Full of nectar
      - Brightly colored with petals that are usually blue or yellow or a mixture of these (bees cannot see red) but can in UV
      - Sweetly aromatic or have a minty fragrance
      - Open in daytime
      - Provide landing platforms
      - Often bilaterally symmetrical (one side of the flower is a mirror image of the other)
      - Flowers are often tubular with nectar at base of tube
    - - Butterfly
      - In clusters and provide landing platforms
      - Brightly colored (red, yellow, orange)
      - Open during the day
      - Ample nectar producers, with nectar deeply hidden
      - Nectar guides present
      - May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)
    - - Moth
      - Many night pollinated species
      - White
      - Heavy scent
      - Tubular corollas
    - - Fly
      - Pale and dull to dark brown or purple
      - Sometimes flecked with translucent patches
      - Putrid order, like rotting meat , carrion, dung, humus, sap and blood
      - Nectar guides not present
      - Produce pollen
      - Flowers are funnel like or complex traps
      - Saprophily, for carrion mimics
    - - Bird
      - Tubular and have petals that are recurved to be out of the way
      - Have tubes, funnels, cups
      - Strong supports for perching
      - Brightly colored: red, yellow, or orange
      - Odorless (birds have a poor sense of smell)
      - Open during the day
      - Prolific nectar producers with nectar deeply hidden
      - Modest pollen producers that are designed to dust the bird’s head/back with pollen as the bird forages for nectar
    - - Bat
      - Open at night;
      - Large in size (1 to 3.5 inches);
      - Pale or white in color;
      - Very fragrant, a fermenting or fruit-like odor; and/or
      - Copious dilute nectar.
    - - Beetle
      - Bowl-shaped with sexual organs exposed
      - White, to dull white or green
      - Strongly fruity
      - Open during the day
      - Moderate nectar producers
      - May be large solitary flowers (i.e. magnolias, pond lilies)
      - May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)
    - - May look like pollinator
      - May smell like pollinator
      - Uses trickery
      - Usually no reward
      - Saprophily included
  - - - Primary endosperm nucleus divides forming endosperm
      - Zygote develops in embryo
      - Integuments develop into a seed coat
      - Ovary wall and related structures develop into fruit
    - - Ovary sometimes with other portions of flower or inflorescence develops into a fruit
      - Ovary wall
        
        Pericarp
        
        Thickens and differentiations
    - - Exocarp
      - Mesocarp
      - Endocarp
    - - Any fruit with accessory tissue
      - Tissue besides the ovary is included in the fruit
      - Can be simple, aggregate or multiple
    - - Fruit development
      - bananas
      - seedless watermelons
    - - Single carpel
      - 2+ united carpels
    - - Apocarpous gynoecium
      - Carpel retains its identify in mature state
    - - Derived from an inflorescence
      - Combined gynoecia of many flowers
  - - - Wind
      - Water
      - Animal
      - self
    - - Wings
      - Parachutes
      - Lightweight seeds
    - - Buoyant
      - Large airspaces
      - Example coconut
    - - Fleshy
      - Provide animal with nutrients
      - Long-distance dispersal
      - Seed pass through gut without harm
      - Seeds are regurgitated later
      - Ends up in a nice little pile of nutrient dense excrement
      - Ants with elaiosome (lipid based nutrient rich)
    - - Hooks
      - Catch on fur
      - Catch on hoof
      - Velcro
    - - gravity
      - exploding
- - - - Evolved from shoot apex
      - Gymnosperm nucellus apex similar to shoot apex
      - Similar genes
    - - Gnetopsiselliptica
      - Stamnostoma huttonense
      - Complete enclosure of megasporangium within integument
    - - Moresnetia zalesskyi
      - Lobate integuments
    - - Pseudosporogonites quadrapartitus
      - Late Devonian (W. Virginia)
      - Elkinsia polymorpha
    - - angiosperms
      - gymnosperms
      - Seed ferns
    - - Heterospory
      - Protection
      - Pollen capture
      - Nucellus
  - - - Pollen chamber
      - micropyle
    - - Extra layer of protection
      - Fertilization of egg occurs in wall
      - Megagametophyte retained inside megaspore wall
    - - Megasporocyte undergoes meiosis
      - 4 resulting daughter cells
      - 3 megaspores degenerate
      - 1 megaspore remains
    - - Second integument phyllad origin
      - First integument telomes
    - - Found in some non-seed plants
      - Microspores
      - Megaspores
    - - Extra layer of protection
      - Large megaspore retained inside megasporangium
      - Reduced megaspores with other 3 aborted
    - - Multicellular megagametophyte
      - Egg retained
      - After syngamy, embryo develops within
  - - - Direct delivery of sperm to the megagametophyte
      - Pollen tube
    - - Can be a lengthy process from pollination to fertilization
      - Provide nutrients to developing sperm
      - Tubes feeding on nucellus
    - - Sperm development within antheridia
      - Sperm rely on water for swimming to archegonia
    - - Gametophyte dominant stage in early land plants
    - - Some with air bladders
      - Exine prevents desiccation
      - Dispersal no longer requires water
      - Microgametophyte
    - - Angiosperm, 3-celled
      - Microspore within microsporangium
      - Mitosis within microspore wall
      - Endosporic male gametophyte = pollen grain
  - - - Both single megasporocyte
      - Both single megaspore
      - 1 integument, 2 integuments
      - Unique to Angiosperm
        
        Additional protection from ovary wall
        
        Double fertilization
    - - Embryo sac = megagametophyte
        
        8 nucleate
      - 2 integuments
      - 1 megaspore
      - 1 megasporocyte
    - - Furniculum
      - Megagametophyte = egg sac
      - Megaspore reduced to one and retained
      - Megasporocyte reduced to one
      - Megasporangium = nucellus
      - 2 integuments
    - - nesting doll
        
        Egg
        
        Archegonium
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        Megaspore wall
        
        Nucellus
        
        Integument
      - Pollen chamber
      - 1 microsporocyte
      - Ovule on megasporophyll
    - - Eggs
      - Archegonium
      - Megasporangium
      - Megaspore wall
      - Integument (1)
      - Nested doll
      - Megasporangium is nutritious tissue = nucellus
  - - - Increased independence from free water reproduction
      - Enabled colonization of drier upland habitats
      - Enabling advanced reproductive traits
      - Embryo dormancy increase chance of offspring survival
    - - Pine example
      - Some with fleshy outer layer (aril)
      - Several cotyledons
      - Integument becomes seed coat
    - - Pollen tube grows down style
      - Generative cell divides into 2 sperm
      - Pollen tube ruptures inside synergid releasing sperm
      - One sperm fuses with egg
      - One sperm fuses with polar nuclei
    - - One cotyledon = scutellum
      - Large amount of endosperm
      - Corn example
      - Integuments become seed coat
    - - 2 cotyledons
      - Large amount of endosperm
      - Integuments become seed coat
      - Bean example
- - - - Each chromosome has a partner
      - Homologous chromosomes
      - Resemble each other in size, shape & hereditary information
      - Each homolog is from a different parent
      - Interactions of genes on each sets of chromosomes determines the genetic characteristics
    - - During Prophase I
      - Synaptonemal complex forms
      - Mixes the genes present in homologous chromosomes
      - Results in new combinations not present in the chromosomes of the parental cells
      - Usually at least one chiasma occurs between every pair of homologous chromosomes
    - - New combination of alleles from each parent
      - Promotes heterozygosity
      - advantages include
        
        genetic diversity
        
        Bet-hedging to novel environments
        
        Multiple deleterious alleles can be bunched together and eliminated
        
        Escape host-parasite negative impacts
      - pollination
  - - - Dominance
      - Segregation
      - Independent Assortment
    - - Each individual has a unique genotype
      - Genotype is made up of alleles
      - Phenotypes determined by these alleles (and the environment)
      - There is no guarantee that an allele will manifest
    - - Alleles are segregated, separated, from one another during meiosis
      - Each gamete contains only one allele for each gene
      - Offspring inherit 2 alleles for a gene
      - During meiosis, 2 members of a gene pair separate from each other
      - Each gamete has an equal chance to inherit either one of the genes
    - - Punnett square
      - Visual representation of the offspring inheritance patterns
      - Monohybrid is a cross between 2 homozygous parents with different alleles.
    - - Gene pairs that are not related (homologs) segregate independently
      - Gene pairs that are not linked segregate independently
  - - - Phenotype of heterozygote is intermediate between those of parent homozygotes
      - Snapdragons
        
        Red x white = pink
    - - Many populations have more than 2 alleles for a particular locus
      - Punnett square theoretical crossing works similar
      - Breeding experiments to determine dominance
      - Figuring out alleles is complex
    - - Fail to mix alleles across homologs
      - Chromosome inherited same as parent
      - Only 2 gamete types possible rather than 4
    - - Multiple genes for one character
      - Phenotype is cumulative result of combined effects of many genes
      - Example abscisic acid
      - Most traits
      - Continuous variation
      - Populations tend to have normal distribution
    - - One gene interacts with another
      - May interfere or mask
    - - 4 haploid genotypes
      - Not produced in equal numbers
    - - Single gene with multiple effects on the phenotype
      - Inheritance of a single gene which visibly influences several traits
    - - Having more than two copies (2n) of a chromosome
      - Autopolyploid
      - Allopolyploid
    - - Polyploid mask deleterious recessive alleles
      - Relax selection pressure
      - 2 groups of ancient duplications