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Musculoskeletal system, Physiology of musculoskeletal system, Muscular…

- - - - Arms straight, hands held by the hips with palms facing forward.
        
        Feet together and parallel, toes pointing forward.
- - - - Transverse Plane
        
        divides the body into an upper (superior) section and a lower (inferior) section.
        
        a horizontal plane. It is parallel to the ground.
      - a vertical plane that passes through the body, perpendicular to the sagittal plane.
      - It divides the body into a front (anterior) section and back (posterior) section.
- - - - Medial and Lateral rotation
        
        Pronation and Supination
        
        Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion
        
        Circumduction
        
        Circular movement of a limb, involving flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.
        Eg: Swinging your arm in a windmill motion engages in circumduction at the shoulder joint.
        
        Dorsiflexion: Movement at the ankle where the foot points upward
        Plantarflexion: Movement at the ankle where the foot points downward
        
        Supination: Turning the hand or foot to face upward or forward.
        Eg: Turning hand, while keeping the elbow and shoulder still, onto its back with the palm facing up is supination
        Pronation: Turning the hand or foot to face downward or backward
        Eg: Turning your hand, while keeping the elbow and shoulder still, onto its front with the palm facing down is pronation.
        
        Medial Rotation (Internal Rotation): Rotational movement toward the midline
        Eg: Medial rotation of the hip is pointing the toes inward.
        Eg: Internal rotation of the shoulder is bringing the hand toward the opposite hip with the elbow at 90 degrees.
        
        Lateral Rotation: Rotational movement away from the midline
        Eg: Lateral rotation of the hip or shoulder would involve rotating away from the midline.
      - movements towards or away from the midline of the body.
      - Abduction: Movement away from the midline
        Eg: Abduction of shoulder raises arms out to the sides.
        Adduction: Movement toward the midline.
        Eg: In fingers and toes, abduction spreads them out, while adduction brings them closer together.
- - - - Provide structural support, composed of connective tissue with calcium and specialized cells, most contain bone marrow, function with muscles and joints in the musculoskeletal system, supporting body structure and enabling movement. Support and protect internal organs, categorized into axial (skull, spine, ribs) and appendicular (arms, legs) skeletons.
      - Long Bone: Long and thin in shape, found in arms and legs (excluding wrists, ankles, and kneecaps).
        Function as levers, enabling movement with the aid of muscles
        Short Bone: Squat and cubed in shape, found in wrists and ankles
        Flat Bone: Flattened with a broad surface, found in ribs, shoulder blades, breastbone, and skull bone
        Irregular Bone: Shape doesn't fit the above categories, examples include vertebrae in the spine
- - - - articular cartilage
        
        Articulating surfaces of synovial joints are covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage
        
        Roles: minimising friction upon joint movement and
        absorbing shock.
      - synovial fluid
        
        located within the joint cavity of a synovial joint. It has three primary functions
        
        Roles
        
        Lubrication
        
        Nutrient distribution
        
        Shock absorption.
        
        can be sub-classified into several different types, depending on the shape of their articular surfaces and the movements permitted
        
        Hinge– permits movement in one plane – usually flexion and extension.
        E.g. elbow joint, ankle joint, knee joint.
        
        Saddle – named due to its resemblance to a saddle on a horse’s back. It is characterised by opposing articular surfaces with a reciprocal concave-convex shape.
        E.g. carpometacarpal joints
        
        Plane – the articular surfaces are relatively flat, allowing the bones to glide over one another.
        E.g. acromioclavicular joint, subtalar joint
        
        Pivot – allows for rotation only. It is formed by a central bony pivot, which is surrounded by a bony-ligamentous ring
        E.g. proximal and distal radioulnar joints, atlantoaxial joint
        
        Condyloid– contains a convex surface which articulates with a concave elliptical cavity. They are also known as ellipsoid joints.
        E.g. wrist joint, metacarpophalangeal joint, metatarsophalangeal joint
        
        Ball and Socket – where the ball-shaped surface of one rounded bone fits into the cup-like depression of another bone. It permits free movement in numerous axes.
        E.g. hip joint, shoulder joint
      - articular capsule
        
        Fibrous layer (outer) – consists of white fibrous tissue, known the capsular ligament. Holds together the articulating bones and supports the underlying synovium.
        
        The synovial layer is a highly vascularized tissue inside joints. It absorbs and secretes synovial fluid, facilitating nutrient exchange between the blood and the joint
- - - - becomes more bent. Knees and hip may become more flexed.
        
        Middle of body becomes shorter as disks gradually lose fluid and become thinner
        
        vertebrae lose some of their mineral content, making each bone thinner
        
        spinal column becomes curved and compressed
        
        bone spurs, caused by ageing and overall use of spine, may also form on the vertebrae
      - Calcium loss from bone
        
        Bone mass peak at about age 35. Gradual loss of bone mass and density starts. Some factors include genetics, smoking, excess alcohol, and hormonal.
        
        Women tend to lose more bone mass than men
        
        Can cause fractures, constant pain or immobility. this is called osteoporosis
        
        Joints become stifffer
        
        Cartilage erosion
        
        Cartilage surface become rougher in joint areas. This reduces flexibility
        
        Flattening foot arches
        
        it become less pronounced, contributing to slight loss of height
        
        joints more stiff, less flexible - hip and joints begin to lose joint cartilage (degenerative changes)
        
        finger joints lose cartilage and bones thicken slightly
        
        finger joint changes are more common in women and may be hereditary
  - - - Decline with age, due to loss of motor unit and muscle fibers. Regular appropriate exercise can slow loss of muscle strength
    - - a result of thinning vertebrae and muscle stiffness
    - - Lean body mass decreases. Caused by loss of muscle tissue (atrophy). Speed and amount of changes is caused by genes.