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Data Analysis - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Hypothesis Testing
        
        Step 1: Set the null hypothesis (=there's no difference): H0.
        Calculate the probability (p-value)
        
        Results:
        1) p-value smaller that 0.05 and we reject the H0: Correct Rejection OR Type I Error
        2) p-value larger that 0.05 and we accept HO: Correct Acceptance OR Type I Error
        
        Step 2: p-value>0.05 accept; p-value<0.05 reject
      - Step 4
        
        Chi-squared Test? T-Test?
        
        Step 5
        
        Correlation
        
        cannot imply causation
        
        While A and B show correlation: We don't know A or B is the cause or result; May be C is the cause of A and B
- - - - External Criticism
        
        2) Is the content consistent with known facts?
        
        1) Who wrote it? The origin of the source.
        
        3) Thirdly, the form of the document may yield vital clues. The historian who deals mostly in handwritten documents needs to be something of a palaeographer in order to decide whether the script is right for the period and place specified, and something of a philologist to evaluate the style and language of a suspect text.
        
        4) Chemical testing
      - Internal Criticism
        
        The interpretation of the content
        
        1) Word meaning may different time to time. Never "reading modern meanings into the past"; be aware of "different levels of meaning may have been embedded in the same text" (P. 96)
        
        2) Reliability
        
        2a) Does he actually present? Learned second hand? (P. 96-97)
        
        Unwitting evidence
        
        Working backwards from the sources: While a culture was only depicted by an unreliable author, you have to visit that community to understand that culture. However, as the time passed, what you see is not what those author see.
        
        2b) Put to pen immediately? Put to pen after the sharpness of his/her memory had blurred? (P. 96-97)
        
        2c) the intention and prejudices of the writer (P. 98)
        
        "Autobiographies are notorious for their errors of recall and their special pleading." (P. 99)
        
        "Even the most tainted sources can assist in the reconstruction of the past." (P. 100)
    - - 1) Social context of specific archive
        
        Public Records
        
        Social Context: that may be unreliable as there are bias or being censored
        
        Officially published records
        
        "prefer to go to the originals". "If these are not available, the published versions must be scrutinized carefully, and as much as possible must be found out from other sources about the circumstances in which they were compiled." (p. 103)
    - - 1) "amass as many pieces of evidence as poss- ible from a wide range of sources – preferably from all the sources that have a bearing on the problem in hand" (P. 103)
      - 2) "Each type of source possesses certain strengths and weaknesses; considered together, and compared one against the other, there is at least a chance that they will reveal the true facts – or something very close to them." (P. 103)
        
        "Divergent sources have to be weighed against each other, forgeries and gaps explained." (P. 109)
      - 3) "The need for primary evidence from ‘insiders’ as well as ‘outsiders’ is an important guideline for historical research, with wide ramifications." (P. 104)
        
        "a golden rule that both sides of a diplomatic conversation must be studied" (P. 104)
        
        Political Science in History: The public records tend to give too much prominence to administrative considerations (thus reflecting the principal interest of the civil servants who wrote most of them) and to reveal much less about the political pressures to which ministers responded; hence the importance of extending the search to the press and Hansard, private letters and diaries, political memoirs, and – for recent history – to first-hand oral evidence.
      - 4) "No document, however authoritative, is beyond question" (P. 109)
      - *"the exact procedures vary according to the type of evidence" (P. 110)