Discourse. Basic principles of discourse analysis.
Contextualization:
Discourse analysis recognizes that language cannot be understood in isolation from its social and cultural context.
The meaning of a particular utterance or text is determined by the social, cultural, and historical circumstances in which it is produced and interpreted.
Discursive construction of reality:
Discourse analysis examines how language is used to construct social reality.
It explores how certain discourses shape our understanding of the world, influence power dynamics, and construct social identities.
Power and ideology
Discourse analysis recognizes that language is not neutral but is imbued with power and ideology.
It examines how language is used to establish, reinforce, or challenge power relations within society and how ideologies are embedded within linguistic practices.
Conversation and dialogue:
Discourse analysis examines how communication occurs in different social contexts, ranging from everyday conversations to institutional discourses.
It explores the structure, organization, and interactional dynamics of spoken and written texts.
Discourse genres.
Narrative:
This genre involves storytelling or recounting events in a sequential manner, often featuring characters, a plot, and a beginning, middle, and end.
Argumentative:
Argumentative discourse involves presenting a claim or an argument, supported by evidence or reasoning, in order to persuade or convince the audience.
Expository
Expository discourse aims to explain or describe a topic or concept in a clear and informative manner. It involves providing facts, definitions, examples, and explanations.
Descriptive:
Descriptive discourse focuses on providing detailed sensory information about a person, place, object, or event. It aims to create a vivid mental picture for the reader or listener.
Analytical
Analytical discourse involves critically examining and evaluating a subject or issue by breaking it down into its component parts and assessing their relationships and significance.
Conversational
Conversational discourse refers to the language used in informal, everyday conversations. It often involves back-and-forth exchanges, interruptions, and non-standard grammar or vocabulary.
Maxims of conversation by P.Grice.
Maxim of Quantity:
This maxim suggests that one should provide as much information as is required, neither too much nor too little. It encourages individuals to be as informative as necessary for clarity, but not to provide excessive or irrelevant information that could confuse the listener.
Maxim of Quality
The maxim of quality encourages speakers to be truthful and accurate in their communication. This maxim requires individuals to provide information that they believe to be true and supported by evidence. Speakers should avoid making statements that are false, unsubstantiated, or without evidence.
Maxim of Relation
The maxim of relation states that individuals should be relevant in their communication. It suggests that speakers should contribute to the topic at hand, and the information shared should be related and helpful in advancing the conversation or understanding.
Maxim of Manner
The maxim of manner focuses on the style and manner of communication. It suggests that individuals should strive to be clear, concise, and orderly in their expression. They should avoid ambiguity, obscurity, or unnecessary complexity that could hinder understanding.
Implicatures of conversation. Conversational and conventional implicatures.
Conversational Implicatures:
Conversational implicatures are derived from the specific context and situation of a conversation. They often rely on principles such as the Cooperative Principle, which suggests that participants in a conversation work together to communicate effectively. Conversational implicatures are not necessarily derived from the meaning of specific words or phrases, but rather from the overall context.
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Example:
Person A asks Person B, "Do you have any plans for the weekend?"
Person B responds, "I have a lot of work to do."
Implicature: Person B implies that they don't have any plans for the weekend because they are busy with work.
Conventional Implicatures:
Conventional implicatures, on the other hand, rely on predefined conventions or meanings associated with certain words or phrases. These conventions are part of the shared understanding within a language community. Unlike conversational implicatures, conventional implicatures are derived from specific words or phrases and can be more easily predicted.
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Example:
Person A says, "John drove his car to the party."
Implicature: The conventional implicature here is that John owns a car, as most people do not refer to driving without owning a car.
Indirectness in conversation: flouting communicative maxims.
Maxim of Quantity:
instead of providing all the necessary information, a speaker intentionally withholds crucial details to convey a hidden meaning.
For example, when someone says, "I had a very interesting day." This statement is vague and does not provide specific details, leaving the listener to interpret the underlying message.
Maxim of Quality:
instead of speaking truthfully, a speaker may exaggerate, use sarcasm, or provide false information to convey a non-literal meaning.
For instance, when someone says, "That's just what I needed," while receiving an unwanted gift. The speaker is indirectly expressing dissatisfaction or disappointment without explicitly stating it.
Maxim of Relation:
Instead of maintaining relevance in the conversation, a speaker may intentionally diverge from the topic or provide unrelated information to convey their intentions indirectly.
For example, when someone starts a discussion about the weather as a way to indirectly bring up a more sensitive or personal topic.
Maxim of Manner:
Instead of communicating with clarity and avoiding ambiguity, a speaker may use ambiguous language, metaphors, or irony to convey a hidden meaning.
For instance, when someone says, "That's an interesting choice," or "I guess you're right," without explicitly stating their disagreement or disapproval.
The Politeness Principle.
Positive politeness:
this strategy emphasizes demonstrating friendliness, showing interest in others, and appreciating their contributions. It aims to maintain and enhance positive face. Examples include using expressions of gratitude, compliments, and humor.
Negative politeness:
This strategy focuses on being considerate of others' negative face wants, which involves giving them space, respecting their autonomy, and avoiding direct impositions. It often involves the use of hedges, indirect requests, and deferential language.
Bald on-record:
This strategy involves being direct and straightforward without worrying about face threats. It is typically used in situations where the relationship allows for a high level of familiarity and informality, and directness is accepted.
Off-record:
This strategy is characterized by a more indirect approach, where speakers hint or suggest their intentions instead of stating them directly. It is often used when the relationship is more distant or when addressing sensitive or delicate topics.
The notion of ‘strategy’ in linguistics. Politeness and other strategies in discourse.
In linguistics, the notion of 'strategy' refers to the conscious and unconscious choices individuals make in order to achieve their communicative goals. These strategies can vary depending on the specific linguistic context, social factors, and the speaker's intentions.
One important area where strategies are often discussed is in the field of pragmatics, which focuses on how meaning is conveyed through language in social interactions. Politeness is a prominent strategy that individuals employ to manage interpersonal relationships and avoid potential conflict in discourse.
Politeness strategies involve using language to show respect, consideration, and deference to others. These strategies can include the use of polite forms, such as honorifics or indirect speech acts, as well as various politeness markers like "please," "thank you," and apologies. The choice to employ these strategies can be influenced by cultural norms, social status, and the specific context of the interaction.
Other strategies in discourse can include strategies for persuasive or argumentative purposes, such as using rhetorical devices, logical reasoning, or emotional appeals. These strategies aim to influence the beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors of the interlocutors.