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Exam 4 Material - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Based on molecular data
      - Bisexual
      - Radially symmetric
      - Multiple whorls of petals
      - Androecium
        
        2+ whorls of anthers
      - Gynoecium
        
        5+ carpels
    - - Archaefructus sinensis
        
        Likely herbaceous
        
        Likely aquatic
        
        124.6bya
    - - Amborellaceae
      - Amborella
      - Amborella trichopoda
      - New Caledonia
      - Dioecious
        
        Male plants
        
        Female plants
      - Shrub
    - - Flowers indefinite in number of parts →flowers have few parts that are definite in number
      - Floral axis shortened
        
        Original spiral arrange no longer evident
        
        Floral parts often fused
      - Ovary superior → inferior
        
        Perianth has become differentiated in distinct calyx & corolla
      - Radial symmetry →irregularity
  - - - A flower is a stem with leaf-like structures.
      - Complete flowers have all four floral appendages:
        
        Sepals, sterile
        
        Petals, sterile
        
        Stamens, male fx
        
        Carpels, female fx
      - Incomplete flowers lack at least one appendage
    - - Sepals are the outermost floral appendage.
      - Are modified leaves that surround maturing flower parts.
      - Protect the flower bud as it develops.
      - May be colorful.
      - All the sepals together are referred to as the calyx.
    - - Petals are located above the sepals on the receptacle.
      - Are leaf-like but contain pigments other than chlorophyll.
      - Attract pollinators.
      - Collectively are a corolla.
      - Sepals and petals collectively are a perianth.
      - Absent in wind-pollinated species.
    - - Stamens occur above the petals.
      - Are collectively the androecium.
      - Two parts: anther and its supporting filament.
      - Diploid anther cells (microsporocytes) undergo meiosis to produce four microspores.
      - Microspores
        
        Undergo mitosis
        
        form a resistant cell wall
      - Microgametophyte
        
        Pollen grains
    - - Megasporophyll
      - Carpels, collectively, are the gynoecium.
      - Stigma catches pollen grains.
      - Style elevates the stigma.
      - Ovary where megaspores are produced.
      - Within the ovary are placentae bearing small structures called ovules
      - After fertilization of the egg, ovules mature into seeds.
  - - - Whorls inserted relative to ovary
        
        Superior
        
        Carpel above
        
        Inferior
        
        Receptacle surrounds carpel
        
        Carpel below
      - Perianth & stamen insertion
        
        Hypogynous
        
        Perianth & stamens on receptacle beneath ovary
        
        ex lilies
      - Epigynous
        
        Perianth & stamens from top of ovary
        
        ex apple flower
      - Perigynous
        
        Perianth & stamens adnate to calyx
        
        ex cherry flower
    - - Lacking a whorl of sexual organs
      - Hermaphroditic = perfect
      - Monoecious = male flowers and female flowers on the same plant
      - Dioecious = male flowers on plant, female flowers on different plant
        
        Male = androecious
        
        Female = gynoecious
    - - Inflorescence
      - Taxonomic importance
      - Various ways to ensure cross pollination
  - - - Color
        
        Some colors are more attractive than others
        
        Color requires resource
        
        Omit when unnecessary
        
        Some are in the uv spectrum
      - Smell, organic volatiles
        
        Signal to pollinators
        
        Sometimes use own preferences and sexual pheremones
        
        Some common chemicals
        
        Benzaldehyde (almond)
        
        Linalool (lavender)
        
        Limonene (citrus)
        
        Beta ocimene (green)
        
        May have scent glands
        
        eg roses
      - Shape
        
        Floral symmetry
        
        Actinomorphic
        
        Radially symmetric
        
        eg sunflower
        
        Zygomorphic
        
        Irregular
        
        Bilateral
        
        eg pea
      - Bloom time
        
        Diurnal
        
        Day time
        
        Nocturnal
        
        Night time
      - Rewards, eg nectar
        
        Nectar
        
        Pollen
        
        Oil
  - - - Abiotic:
        
        Anemophily (wind)
        
        Hydrophily (water)
      - Biotic
        
        Melittophily (bee)
        
        Psychophily (butterfly)
        
        Phalenophily (moth)
        
        Myophily, sapromyophily (fly)
        
        Ornithophily (bird)
        
        Chiropterophily (bat)
        
        Cantharophily (beetle)
    - - Wind
      - No bright colors, special odors, or nectar
      - Small
      - Most have no petals
      - Stamens and stigmas exposed to air currents
      - Large amount of pollen
      - Pollen smooth, light, easily airborne
      - Stigma feathery to catch pollen from wind
    - - Water
      - Copious pollen
      - Small flowers
      - Long filaments for pollen transport on surface
      - Oblong, heavier pollen for submarine transport
    - - Bee
      - Full of nectar
      - Brightly colored with petals that are usually blue or yellow or a mixture of these (bees cannot see red) but can in UV
      - Sweetly aromatic or have a minty fragrance
      - Open in daytime
      - Provide landing platforms
      - Often bilaterally symmetrical (one side of the flower is a mirror image of the other)
      - Flowers are often tubular with nectar at base of tube
    - - Butterfly
      - In clusters and provide landing platforms
      - Brightly colored (red, yellow, orange)
      - Open during the day
      - Ample nectar producers, with nectar deeply hidden
      - Nectar guides present
      - May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)
    - - Moth
      - Many night pollinated species
      - White
      - Heavy scent
      - Tubular corollas
    - - Fly
      - Pale and dull to dark brown or purple
      - Sometimes flecked with translucent patches
      - Putrid order, like rotting meat , carrion, dung, humus, sap and blood
      - Nectar guides not present
      - Produce pollen
      - Flowers are funnel like or complex traps
      - Saprophily, for carrion mimics
    - - Bird
      - Tubular and have petals that are recurved to be out of the way
      - Have tubes, funnels, cups
      - Strong supports for perching
      - Brightly colored: red, yellow, or orange
      - Odorless (birds have a poor sense of smell)
      - Open during the day
      - Prolific nectar producers with nectar deeply hidden
      - Modest pollen producers that are designed to dust the bird’s head/back with pollen as the bird forages for nectar
    - - Bat
      - Open at night;
      - Large in size (1 to 3.5 inches);
      - Pale or white in color;
      - Very fragrant, a fermenting or fruit-like odor; and/or
      - Copious dilute nectar.
    - - Beetle
      - Bowl-shaped with sexual organs exposed
      - White, to dull white or green
      - Strongly fruity
      - Open during the day
      - Moderate nectar producers
      - May be large solitary flowers (i.e. magnolias, pond lilies)
      - May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)
    - - May look like pollinator
      - May smell like pollinator
      - Uses trickery
      - Usually no reward
      - Saprophily included
  - - - Primary endosperm nucleus divides forming endosperm
      - Zygote develops in embryo
      - Integuments develop into a seed coat
      - Ovary wall and related structures develop into fruit
    - - Ovary sometimes with other portions of flower or inflorescence develops into a fruit
      - Ovary wall
        
        Pericarp
        
        Exocarp
        
        Mesocarp
        
        Endocarp
        
        Thickens and differentiations
        
        Exocarp
        
        Mesocarp
        
        Endocarp
    - - Any fruit with accessory tissue
      - Tissue besides the ovary is included in the fruit
      - Can be simple, aggregate or multiple
    - - Fruit development
        
        Without fertilization
        
        Without seed development
      - Banana
      - Seedless watermelon
    - - Apocarpous gynoecium
      - Carpel retains its identify in mature state
      - Example
        
        Magnolias
        
        Raspberries
        
        Strawberries
    - - Single carpel
      - 2+ united carpels
      - Examples
        
        Bean
        
        Cherry
        
        Tomato
      - Major fleshy types
        
        Berries
        
        Drupes
        
        Pomes
      - Major dry types
        
        Dehiscent
        
        Indehiscent
    - - Derived from an inflorescence
      - Combined gynoecia of many flowers
      - Example
        
        Fig
        
        Mulberry
        
        Pineapple
  - - - Wind
        
        Wings
        
        Parachutes
        
        Lightweight seeds
      - Water
        
        Buoyant
        
        Large airspaces
        
        Example coconut
      - Animal
        
        Active
        
        Fleshy
        
        Provide animal with nutrients
        
        Long-distance dispersal
        
        Seed pass through gut without harm
        
        Seeds are regurgitated later
        
        Ends up in a nice little pile of nutrient dense excrement
        
        Ants with elaiosome (lipid based nutrient rich)
        
        Passive
        
        Hooks
        
        Catch on fur
        
        Catch on hoof
        
        Velcro
      - Self
        
        Gravity
        
        Exploding
- - - - Seed ferns (extinct)
      - Gymnosperms
      - Progymnosperms (extinct)
      - Angiosperms
    - - Elkinsia polymorpha
      - 4-5 lobes fused basal third
      - ~360mya
      - Late Devonian (W. Virginia)
      - Pseudosporogonites quadrapartitus
    - - Lobate integuments
        
        Free from nucellus/ megasporangium
      - Moresnetia zalesskyi
        
        8-10 lobes fused at chalaza and widely separated
        
        ~360mya
    - - Complete enclosure of megasporangium within integument
        
        Increased protection
        
        Desiccation
        
        Herbivory
      - Stamnostoma huttonense
        
        352 mya
      - Gnetopsiselliptica
    - - Evolved from shoot apex
      - Gymnosperm nucellus apex similar to shoot apex
      - Similar genes
    - - Heterospory
      - Protection
        
        Integuments
      - Pollen capture
        
        Pollen chamber
        
        Micropyle
      - Nucellus
  - - - Heterospory
      - Megasporangium enclosed in integuments
      - Retention of megaspores w/in megasporangium
      - Reduction # of megasporocytes/ megasporangium to 1
      - Survival of 1 megaspore
      - Endosporic megagametophyte
      - Modification of megasporangium apex for microspores or microgametophytes
      - Embryo develop within megagametophyte
    - - Megaspores
        
        Megagametophyte
      - Microspores
        
        Microgametophyte
      - Found in some non-seed plants
    - - First integument telomes
      - Second integument phyllad origin
    - - Megasporocyte
        
        Megaspore mother cell
        
        Reduced to one per megasporangium rather than hundreds
    - - Megasporocyte undergoes meiosis
      - 4 resulting daughter cells
      - 3 megaspores degenerate
      - 1 megaspore remains
    - - Reduced megaspores with other 3 aborted
      - Large megaspore retained inside megasporangium
      - Extra layer of protection
    - - Megagametophyte retained inside megaspore wall
      - Fertilization of egg occurs in wall
      - Extra layer of protection
    - - Pollen Chamber
        
        Through programmed cell death
      - Micropyle
    - - Multicellular megagametophyte
      - Egg retained
      - After syngamy, embryo develops within
  - - - Gametophyte dominant stage in early land plants
      - Reduced over time
    - - Sperm development within antheridia
      - Sperm rely on water for swimming to archegonia
    - - Microgametophyte
      - Dispersal no longer requires water
      - Exine prevents desiccation
      - Some with air bladders
        
        Transport by WInd
    - - Tubes feeding on nucellus
      - Provide nutrients to developing sperm
      - Can be a lengthy process from pollination to fertilization
    - - Pollen tube
        
        Directed by synergids
        
        Feeds on nucellus (gymnosperm)
        
        Feeds on style (angiosperm)
      - Direct delivery of sperm to the megagametophyte
    - - Microspore within microsporangium
      - Mitosis within microspore wall
      - Endosporic male gametophyte = pollen grain
      - Angiosperm, 3-celled
        
        Tube cell
        
        Generative cell
  - - - Megasporangium is nutritious tissue = nucellus
      - Nested doll
      - Integument (1)
      - Megaspore wall
      - Megasporangium
      - Archegonium
      - Eggs
    - - Ovule on megasporophyll
      - 1 microsporocyte
      - Pollen chamber
      - Nesting doll
        
        Integument
        
        Nucellus
        
        Megaspore wall
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        Archegonium
        
        Egg
    - - 2 integuments
      - Megasporangium = nucellus
      - Megasporocyte reduced to one
      - Megaspore reduced to one and retained
      - Megagametophyte = egg sac
      - Furniculum
    - - 1 megasporocyte
      - 1 megaspore
      - 2 integuments
      - Embryo sac = megagametophyte
        
        8 nucleate
        
        3 antipodals
        
        Sometimes nutritive
        
        2 polar
        
        Becomes endosperm
        
        2 synergids
        
        Guide pollen tube
        
        1 egg
        
        Eventual zygote
    - - Both single megasporocyte
      - Both single megaspore
      - 1 integument, 2 integuments
      - Unique to Angiosperm
        
        Double fertilization
        
        Additional protection from ovary wall
  - - - Increased independence from free water reproduction
      - Enabled colonization of drier upland habitats
      - Enabling advanced reproductive traits
        
        Pollination drops
      - Embryo dormancy increase chance of offspring survival
    - - Pine example
      - Some with fleshy outer layer (aril)
      - Several cotyledons
      - Integument becomes seed coat
    - - Pollen tube grows down style
      - Generative cell divides into 2 sperm
      - Pollen tube ruptures inside synergid releasing sperm
      - One sperm fuses with egg
        
        Zygote
        
        2n diploid
      - One sperm fuses with polar nuclei
        
        3n triploid
        
        Endosperm
    - - One cotyledon = scutellum
      - Large amount of endosperm
      - Corn example
      - Integuments become seed coat
    - - 2 cotyledons
      - Large amount of endosperm
      - Integuments become seed coat
      - Bean example
- - - - Each chromosome has a partner
      - Homologous chromosomes
      - Resemble each other in size, shape & hereditary information
      - Each homolog is from a different parent
      - Interactions of genes on each sets of chromosomes determines the genetic characteristics
    - - During Metaphase I
        
        Orientation of bivalents is random
      - During Metaphase II
        
        Orientation of sister chromatids is random
      - In general, the possibilities are 2n
        
        Ex: human with 46 chromosomes
        
        246 = 7.04 x 1013
    - - During Prophase I
      - Synaptonemal complex forms
      - Mixes the genes present in homologous chromosomes
      - Results in new combinations not present in the chromosomes of the parental cells
      - Usually at least one chiasma occurs between every pair of homologous chromosomes
    - - New combination of alleles from each parent
      - Promotes heterozygosity
      - Advantages include
        
        genetic diversity
        
        Bet-hedging to novel environments
        
        Multiple deleterious alleles can be bunched together and eliminated
        
        Escape host-parasite negative impacts
      - Pollination
        
        Cross pollination vs
        
        Self pollination
  - - - Dominance
        
        Each individual has a unique genotype
        
        Genotype is made up of alleles
        
        Phenotypes determined by these alleles (and the environment)
        
        There is no guarantee that an allele will manifest
        
        Heterozygosity
        
        One of 2 genes (dominant allele) has a detectable effect on an organism's appearance
        
        The other gene has no discernable effect (recessive allele)
        
        Homozygosity, both alleles are the same
      - Segregation
        
        Alleles are segregated, separated, from one another during meiosis
        
        Each gamete contains only one allele for each gene
        
        Offspring inherit 2 alleles for a gene
        
        One from each parent
        
        Inherit a homologous chromosome
        
        During meiosis, 2 members of a gene pair separate from each other
        
        Each gamete has an equal chance to inherit either one of the genes
      - Independent Assortment
        
        Gene pairs that are not related (homologs) segregate independently
        
        Gene pairs that are not linked segregate independently
        
        Evidence provided from a dihybrid cross
        
        3:1 phenotypic ratio for each of the 2 alleles
    - - Punnett square
      - Visual representation of the offspring inheritance patterns
      - Monohybrid is a cross between 2 homozygous parents with different alleles.
    - - Parental
        
        True breeding
        
        Homozygous
      - F1
        
        First filial generation
        
        Heterozygotes
      - Genotypic ratio
        
        Allele combinations
      - Phenotypic ratio
        
        Trait combinations
  - - - Phenotype of heterozygote is intermediate between those of parent homozygotes
      - Snapdragons
        
        Red x white = pink
    - - Many populations have more than 2 alleles for a particular locus
      - Punnett square theoretical crossing works similar
      - Breeding experiments to determine dominance
      - Figuring out alleles is complex
    - - Changes in the genetic makeup of an individual
      - Point mutation
        
        Single nucleotide change
      - Chromosome mutation
        
        Deletion
        
        Segments of chromosome are lost
        
        Duplication
        
        Part of the chromosome has doubled
        
        Inversion
        
        Piece rotates 180
        
        Translocation
        
        Exchange of parts between 2 nonhomologous chromosomes
        
        Transposons
        
        Movable genetic element
        
        Jumping genes
    - - Fail to mix alleles across homologs
      - Chromosome inherited same as parent
      - Only 2 gamete types possible rather than 4
    - - Multiple genes for one character
      - Phenotype is cumulative result of combined effects of many genes
      - Example abscisic acid
      - Most traits
      - Continuous variation
      - Populations tend to have normal distribution
    - - 4 haploid genotypes
      - Not produced in equal numbers
        
        Recombinants less abundant
        
        Parentals more abundant
    - - One gene interacts with another
      - May interfere or mask
      - Ex: digitalis petal color
        
        One gene impacts red intensity
        
        d light red
        
        D dark red
        
        Pigment location
        
        W throughout corolla
        
        W spots of nectar guide
    - - Single gene with multiple effects on the phenotype
      - Inheritance of a single gene which visibly influences several traits
      - Ex: awn of wheat
        
        Wheat with awns have greater yield than those without awns
    - - Selfer
        
        Small petals
        
        Flower early
        
        Seasonal drought
        
        Physiologically escape?
      - Outcrosser
        
        Large petals
        
        Flower late
        
        Seasonal drought
        
        Physiologically tolerant?
    - - Having more than two copies (2n) of a chromosome
      - Autopolyploid
        
        Failed meiosis
        
        Self fertilization
      - Allopolyploid
        
        Meiotic error
        
        Mismatch during mating
        
        Second mating creates matched pairs
      - Polyploid example
        
        Wheat
        
        Result of sequential hybrid doubling and quadrupling
        
        Original ancestral species had 14 chromosomes
        
        Durum wheat
        
        28 chromosome
        
        Tetraploid
        
        pasta
        
        Bread Wheat
        
        42 chromosome
        
        Hexaploid
        
        Gluten for lofty bread
        
        Strawberry
        
        Chemically induced
        
        Prevent microtubule formation
        
        Required for meiosis to occur properly
        
        Produce diploid gametes
        
        During fertilization 2 diploid gametes fuse
        
        Results in tetraploid (4n)
    - - Polyploid mask deleterious recessive alleles
      - Relax selection pressure
        
        Accumulate mutations that eventually result in beneficial trait
      - 2 groups of ancient duplications
        
        Common ancestor of seed plants
        
        Common ancestor of extant angiosperms