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Exam 4 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Some colors are more attractive than others
      - Color requires resource
      - Some are in the uv spectrum
    - - Signal to pollinators
      - Sometimes use own preferences and sexual pheremones
      - Some common chemicals
        
        Benzaldehyde (almond)
        
        Linalool (lavender)
        
        Limonene (citrus)
        
        Beta ocimene (green)
      - May have scent glands
        
        eg roses
    - - Color
      - Smell, organic volatiles
      - Shape
      - Bloom time
      - Rewards, eg nectar
    - - Floral symmetry
      - Actinomorphic
        
        Radially symmetric
        
        eg sunflower
      - Zygomorphic
        
        Irregular
        
        Bilateral
        
        eg pea
    - - Diurnal
        
        Day time
      - Nocturnal
        
        Night time
    - - Nectar
      - Pollen
      - Oil
  - - - Abiotic
        
        Anemophily (wind)
        
        Hydrophily (water)
      - Biotic
        
        Melittophily (bee)
        
        Psychophily (butterfly)
        
        Phalenophily (moth)
        
        Myophily, sapromyophily (fly)
        
        Ornithophily (bird)
        
        Chiropterophily (bat)
        
        Cantharophily (beetle)
    - - Wind
      - No bright colors, special odors, or nectar
      - Small
      - Most have no petals
      - Stamens and stigmas exposed to air currents
      - Large amount of pollen
      - Pollen smooth, light, easily airborne
      - Stigma feathery to catch pollen from wind
    - - Water
      - Copious pollen
      - Small flowers
      - Long filaments for pollen transport on surface
      - Oblong, heavier pollen for submarine transport
    - - Bee
      - Full of nectar
      - Brightly colored with petals that are usually blue or yellow or a mixture of these (bees cannot see red) but can in UV
      - Sweetly aromatic or have a minty fragrance
      - Open in daytime
      - Provide landing platforms
      - Often bilaterally symmetrical (one side of the flower is a mirror image of the other)
      - Flowers are often tubular with nectar at base of tube
    - - Butterfly
      - In clusters and provide landing platforms
      - Brightly colored (red, yellow, orange)
      - Open during the day
      - Ample nectar producers, with nectar deeply hidden
      - Nectar guides present
      - May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)
    - - Moth
      - Many night pollinated species
      - White
      - Heavy scent
      - Tubular corollas
    - - Fly
      - Pale and dull to dark brown or purple
      - Sometimes flecked with translucent patches
      - Putrid order, like rotting meat , carrion, dung, humus, sap and blood
      - Nectar guides not present
      - Produce pollen
      - Flowers are funnel like or complex traps
      - Saprophily, for carrion mimics
    - - Bird
      - Tubular and have petals that are recurved to be out of the way
      - Have tubes, funnels, cups
      - Strong supports for perching
      - Brightly colored: red, yellow, or orange
      - Odorless (birds have a poor sense of smell)
      - Open during the day
      - Prolific nectar producers with nectar deeply hidden
      - Modest pollen producers that are designed to dust the bird’s head/back with pollen as the bird forages for nectar
    - - Bat
      - Open at night;
      - Large in size (1 to 3.5 inches);
      - Pale or white in color;
      - Very fragrant, a fermenting or fruit-like odor; and/or
      - Copious dilute nectar.
    - - Beetle
      - Bowl-shaped with sexual organs exposed
      - White, to dull white or green
      - Strongly fruity
      - Open during the day
      - Moderate nectar producers
      - May be large solitary flowers (i.e. magnolias, pond lilies)
      - May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)
    - - May look like pollinator
      - May smell like pollinator
      - Uses trickery
      - Usually no reward
      - Saprophily included
  - - - Whorls inserted relative to ovary
        
        Superior
        
        Carpel above
        
        Inferior
        
        Receptacle surrounds carpel
        
        Carpel below
      - Perianth & stamen insertion
        
        Hypogynous
        
        Perianth & stamens on receptacle beneath ovary
        
        ex lilies
        
        Epigynous
        
        Perianth & stamens from top of ovary
        
        ex apple flower
        
        Perigynous
        
        Perianth & stamens adnate to calyx
        
        ex cherry flower
    - - Lacking a whorl of sexual organs
      - Hermaphroditic = perfect
      - Monoecious = male flowers and female flowers on the same plant
      - Dioecious = male flowers on plant, female flowers on different plant
        
        Male = androecious
        Female = gynoecious
    - - Inflorescence
      - Taxonomic importance
      - Various ways to ensure cross pollination
  - - - Primary endosperm nucleus divides forming endosperm
      - Zygote develops in embryo
      - Integuments develop into a seed coat
      - Ovary wall and related structures develop into fruit
    - - Ovary sometimes with other portions of flower or inflorescence develops into a fruit
      - Ovary wall
        
        Pericarp
        
        Thickens and differentiations
        
        Exocarp
        
        Mesocarp
        
        Endocarp
    - - Exocarp
      - Mesocarp
      - Endocarp
    - - Any fruit with accessory tissue
      - Tissue besides the ovary is included in the fruit
      - Can be simple, aggregate or multiple
    - - Fruit development
        
        Without fertilization
        
        Without seed development
      - Banana
      - Seedless watermelon
    - - Single carpel
      - 2+ united carpels
      - Examples
        
        Bean
        
        Cherry
        
        Tomato
      - Major fleshy types
        
        Berries
        
        Drupes
        
        Pomes
      - Major dry types
        
        Dehiscent
        
        Indehiscent
    - - Apocarpous gynoecium
      - Carpel retains its identify in mature state
      - Example
        
        Magnolias
        
        Raspberries
        
        Strawberries
    - - Derived from an inflorescence
      - Combined gynoecia of many flowers
      - Example
        
        Fig
        
        Mulberry
        
        Pineapple
  - - - Located above the sepals on the receptacle.
      - Leaflike but contain pigments other than chlorophyll
      - Attract pollinators.
      - Collectively are a corolla.
      - Sepals and petals collectively are a perianth.
      - Absent in wind-pollinated species.
    - - Sepals are the outermost floral appendage.
      - Are modified leaves that surround maturing flower parts.
      - Protect the flower bud as it develops.
      - May be colorful.
      - All the sepals together are referred to as the calyx.
    - - Stamens occur above the petals.
      - Are collectively the androecium.
      - Two parts: anther and its supporting filament.
      - Diploid anther cells (microsporocytes) undergo meiosis to produce four microspores.
        
        Pollen located in stamen (anther)
      - Microspores
        
        Undergo mitosis
        
        form resistant cell wall
      - Microgametophyte
        
        Pollen grains
    - - A flower is a stem with leaf-like structures.
      - Complete flowers have all four floral appendages:
        
        Sepals, sterile
        
        Petals, sterile
        
        Stamens, male fx
        
        Carpels, female fx
      - Incomplete flowers lack at least one appendag
    - - Megasporophyll
      - Carpels, collectively, are the gynoecium.
      - Stigma catches pollen grains.
      - Style elevates the stigma.
      - Ovary where megaspores are produced.
      - Within the ovary are placentae bearing small structures called ovules
      - After fertilization of the egg, ovules mature into seeds.
  - - - Wind
      - Water
      - Animal
        
        Active
        
        Passive
      - Self
    - - Wings
      - Parachutes
      - Lightweight seeds
    - - Buoyant
      - Large airspaces
      - Example coconut
    - - Fleshy
      - Provide animal with nutrients
      - Long-distance dispersal
      - Seed pass through gut without harm
      - Seeds are regurgitated later
      - Ends up in a nice little pile of nutrient dense excrement
      - Ants with elaiosome (lipid based nutrient rich)
    - - Hooks
      - Catch on fur
      - Catch on hoof
      - Velcro
    - - Gravity
      - Exploding
  - - - Archaefructus sinensis
      - Likely herbaceous
      - Likely aquatic
      - 124.6bya
    - - Amborellaceae
      - Amborella
      - Amborella trichopoda
      - New Caledonia
      - Dioecious
        
        Male plant and Female plant
      - Shrub
    - - Based on molecular data
      - Bisexual
      - Radially symmetric
      - Multiple whorls of petals
      - Androecium
        
        2+ whorls of anthers
      - Gynoecium
        
        5+ carpels
    - - Flowers indefinite in number of parts →flowers have few parts that are definite in number
      - Floral axis shortened
        
        Original spiral arrange no longer evident
        
        Floral parts often fused
      - Ovary superior → inferior
        
        Perianth has become differentiated in distinct calyx & corolla
      - Radial symmetry →irregularity
- - - - Microgametophyte
      - Dispersal no longer requires water
      - Exine prevents desiccation
      - Some with air bladders
        
        Wind transportation
    - - Tubes feeding on nucellus
      - Provide nutrients to developing sperm
      - Can be lengthy process
    - - to swim
    - - Direct delivery of sperm to the megagametophyte
      - Pollen tube
        
        Directed by synergids
        
        Feeds on nucellus (gymnosperm)
        
        Feeds on style (angiosperm)
    - - Sperm development within antheridia
      - Require water to swim to archegonium
    - - Gametophyte dominant stage in early land plants
      - Reduced over time
    - - Angiosperm, 3-celled
      - Microspore within microsporangium
      - Mitosis within microspore wall
      - Endosporic male gametophyte = pollen grain
  - - - 2 integuments
      - Megasporangium = nucellus
      - Megasporocyte reduced to one
      - Megaspore reduced to one and retained
      - Megagametophyte = egg sac
      - Furniculum
    - - 1 megasporocyte
      - 1 megaspore
      - 2 integuments
      - Embryo sac = megagametophyte
        
        8 nucleate
        
        3 antipodals
        
        2 polar
        
        Becomes endosperm
        
        2 synergids
        
        Guide pollen tube
        
        1 egg
    - - Ovule on megasporophyll
      - 1 microsporocyte
      - Pollen chamber
      - Nesting doll
        
        Integument
        
        Nucellus
        
        Megaspore wall
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        Archegonium
        
        Egg
    - - Both single megasporocyte
      - Both single megaspore
      - 1 integument, 2 integuments
      - Unique to Angiosperm
        
        Additional protection from ovary wall
        
        Double fertilization
    - - Megasporangium is nutritious tissue = nucellus
      - Nested doll
      - Integument (1)
      - Megaspore wall
      - Megasporangium
      - Archegonium
      - Eggs
  - - - Megasporocyte undergoes meiosis
        
        4 resulting daughter cells
        
        3 megaspores degenerate
        
        1 megaspore remains
    - - Reduced megaspores with other 3 aborted
      - Large megaspore retained inside megasporangium
      - Extra layer of protection
    - - Megasporocyte
        
        Megaspore mother cell
        
        Reduced to one per megasporangium rather than hundreds
    - - Megagametophyte retained inside megaspore wall
      - Fertilization of egg occurs in wall
      - Extra layer of protection
    - - Pollen chamber
      - Through programmed cell death
      - Micropyle
    - - Multicellular megagametophyte
      - Egg retained
      - After syngamy, embryo develops within
    - - Second integument phyllad origin
      - First integument telomes
    - - Megaspores
      - Microspores
      - Found in some non-seed plants
    - - Heterospory
      - Megasporangium enclosed in integuments
      - Retention of megaspores w/in megasporangium
      - Reduction # of megasporocytes/ megasporangium to 1
      - Survival of 1 megaspore
      - Endosporic megagametophyte
      - Modification of megasporangium apex for microspores or microgametophytes
      - Embryo develop within megagametophyte
  - - - Pollen tube grows down style
      - Generative cell divides into 2 sperm
      - Pollen tube ruptures inside synergid releasing sperm
      - One sperm fuses with egg
        
        2n diploid
        Zygote
      - One sperm fuses with polar nuclei
        
        3n triploid
        Endosperm
    - - Pine example
      - Some with fleshy outer layer (aril)
      - Several cotyledons
      - Integument becomes seed coat
    - - Increased independence from free water reproduction
      - Enabled colonization of drier upland habitats
      - Enabling advanced reproductive traits
      - Embryo dormancy increase chance of offspring survival
    - - One cotyledon = scutellum
      - Large amount of endosperm
      - Corn example
      - Integuments become seed coat
    - - 2 cotyledons
      - Large amount of endosperm
      - Integuments become seed coat
      - Bean example
  - - - Elkinsia polymorpha
        
        4-5 lobes fused basal third
        
        ~360mya
      - Late Devonian (W. Virginia)
      - Pseudosporogonites quadrapartitus
    - - Lobate integuments
        
        Free from nucellus/ megasporangium
      - Moresnetia zalesskyi
        
        8-10 lobes fused at chalaza and widely separated
        
        ~360mya
    - - Seed ferns (extinct)
      - Gymnosperms
        
        Progymnosperms extinct
      - Angiosperms
    - - Complete enclosure of megasporangium within integument
        
        Increased Protection
        
        Dessication
        
        Herbivory
      - Stamnostoma huttonense
        
        352 mya
    - - Evolved from shoot apex
      - Gymnosperm nucellus apex similar to shoot apex
      - Similar genes
    - - Heterospory
      - Protection
        
        Integuments
      - Pollen capture
        
        Pollen chamber
        
        Micropyle
      - Nucellus
- - - - Dominance
      - Segregation
      - Independent Assortment
    - - Each individual has a unique genotype
      - Genotype is made up of alleles
      - Phenotypes determined by these alleles (and the environment)
      - There is no guarantee that an allele will manifest
        
        Heterozygosity
        
        One of 2 genes (dominant allele) has a detectable effect on an organism's appearance
        
        The other gene has no discernable effect (recessive allele)
        
        Homozygosity, both alleles are the same
    - - Alleles are segregated, separated, from one another during meiosis
      - Each gamete contains only one allele for each gene
      - Offspring inherit 2 alleles for a gene
        
        One from each parent
        Inherit a homologous chromosome
      - During meiosis, 2 members of a gene pair separate from each other
      - Each gamete has an equal chance to inherit either one of the genes
    - - Punnett square
      - Visual representation of the offspring inheritance patterns
      - Monohybrid is a cross between 2 homozygous parents with different alleles.
    - - Gene pairs that are not related (homologs) segregate independently
      - Gene pairs that are not linked segregate independently
      - Evidence provided from a dihybrid cross
        
        3:1 phenotypic ratio for each of the 2 alleles
    - - Same as previous video
      - For reference
      - Parental
        
        True breeding
        Homozygous
      - F1
        
        First filial generation
        Heterozygotes
      - Genotypic ratio
        
        Allele combinations
      - Phenotypic ratio
        
        Trait combinations
  - - - Phenotype of heterozygote is intermediate between those of parent homozygotes
      - Snapdragons
      - Red x white = pink
    - - Many populations have more than 2 alleles for a particular locus
      - Punnett square theoretical crossing works similar
      - Breeding experiments to determine dominance
      - Figuring out alleles is complex
    - - Changes in the genetic makeup of an individual
      - Point mutation
        
        Single nucleotide change
      - Chromosome mutation
        
        Deletion
        
        Segments of chromosome are lost
        
        Duplication
        
        Part of the chromosome has doubled
        
        Inversion
        
        Piece rotates 180
        
        Translocation
        
        Exchange of parts between 2 nonhomologous chromosomes
        
        Transposons
        
        Movable genetic element
        
        Jumping genes
    - - Fail to mix alleles across homologs
      - Chromosome inherited same as parent
      - Only 2 gamete types possible rather than 4
    - - Multiple genes for one character
      - Phenotype is cumulative result of combined effects of many genes
      - Example abscisic acid
      - Most traits
      - Continuous variation
      - Populations tend to have normal distribution
    - - One gene interacts with another
      - May interfere or mask
      - Ex: digitalis petal color
        
        One gene impacts red intensity
        
        d light red
        
        D dark red
        
        Pigment location
        
        w throughout corolla
        
        W spots of nectar guide
    - - 4 haploid genotypes
      - Not produced in equal numbers
        
        Recombinants less abundant
        
        Parentals more abundant
    - - Single gene with multiple effects on the phenotype
      - Inheritance of a single gene which visibly influences several traits
      - Ex: awn of wheat
        
        Wheat with awns have greater yield than those without awns
    - - Selfer
        
        Small petals
        
        Flower early
        
        Seasonal drought
        
        Physiologically escape?
      - Outcrosser
        
        Large petals
        
        Flower late
        
        Seasonal drought
        
        Physiologically tolerant?
    - - Having more than two copies (2n) of a chromosome
      - Autopolyploid
        
        Failed meiosis
        
        Self fertilization
      - Allopolyploid
        
        Meiotic error
        
        Mismatch during mating
      - Second mating creates matched pairs
    - - Wheat
      - Result of sequential hybrid doubling and quadrupling
      - Original ancestral species had 14 chromosomes
      - Durum wheat
        
        28 chromosome
        
        Tetraploid
        
        pasta
      - Bread wheat
        
        42 chromosome
        
        Hexaploid
        
        Gluten for lofty bread
      - Strawberry
      - Chemically induced
      - Prevent microtubule formation
        
        Required for meiosis to occur properly
      - Produce diploid gametes
      - During fertilization 2 diploid gametes fuse
      - Results in tetraploid (4n)
    - - Polyploid mask deleterious recessive alleles
      - Relax selection pressure
        
        Accumulate mutations that eventually result in beneficial trait
      - 2 groups of ancient duplications
        
        Common ancestor of seed plants
        
        Common ancestor of extant angiosperms
  - - - Each chromosome has a partner
      - Homologous chromosomes
      - Resemble each other in size, shape & hereditary information
      - Each homolog is from a different parent
      - Interactions of genes on each sets of chromosomes determines the genetic characteristics
    - - During Metaphase I
        
        Orientation of bivalents is random
      - During Metaphase II
        
        Orientation of sister chromatids is random
      - In general, the possibilities are 2n
        
        Ex: human with 46 chromosomes
        
        246 = 7.04 x 1013
    - - During Prophase I
      - Synaptonemal complex forms
      - Mixes the genes present in homologous chromosomes
      - Results in new combinations not present in the chromosomes of the parental cells
      - Usually at least one chiasma occurs between every pair of homologous chromosomes
    - - Promotes heterozygosity
      - Advantages include
        
        genetic diversity
        
        Bet-hedging to novel environments
        
        Multiple deleterious alleles can be bunched together and eliminated
        
        Escape host-parasite negative impacts
      - New combination of alleles from each parent
      - Pollination
        
        Cross pollination vs. self-pollination
        
        Note type of pollination w/ genetic variation