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35. THE EXPLANATORY TEXT: STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS., 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY,…

- - - - Quirk (1990)”it may be anything from a single proverb to a whole play, from a momentary cry for help to a long discussion in a meeting”
    - - Traditional rhetorical category identifies: narrative, descriptive, argumentative, expository /explanatory & procedural/instructive texts.
        
        Texts belonging to the same type share the same contextual configuration & GSP (Generic Structure Potential) + common linguistic features.
- - - - In Factual Writing J R Martin (1989): factual writing = writing about the way things are. Different from narrative - designed to explore world around us (not to entertain). Focuses on how things get done & what things are like.
        
        Explanatory texts have an intention to make some phenomena understandable. ∴ have a strong informational character. Can be spoken or written and tend to be objective (though sometimes bias present).
        
        BUT - not always distinguishable from other types of texts. Belong on a continuum with descriptive texts at one end (records & reports) & argumentative texts (many similarities (esp if v logos oriented argumentative text) at the other.
        
        Explanatory aim: provide & clarify info: augmentative aim: convince reader/listener of ideas contained in text. But - expository text almost always contains argumentation, and an argument generally presents explanation of issues 1st. Despite overlap, texts can be classified according to their predominant function: informing (explanatory) or convincing (argumentative).
  - - - Explanatory/explicative text (aka informative text) gives explanation of a process or situation. Aim: make it clear & easy to understand. Eg- benefits of running 10 km a day. Uses stats & facts too. Some include here ‘how-to texts’.* So mainly utilitarian - functions as an educational/instructional paper - little room for creativity.
        
        Expository text presents info, shares ideas & provides detailed explanation & evidence as well as analysis of most important elements. Contain thesis statement. Eg, “honey as a better alternative to sugar” - explains benefits of honey AND compares pros & cons of both. Still objective - don’t try to convince/persuade. However, author's personal feelings may influence selection of material. Can include anecdotes/humour.
        
        WE will use the term explanatory/expository text instinctively to mean a text which aims either to inform or analyse a theory/plan/academic subject/concept etc.
        
        Medium: academic papers, adverts, specialised essays, university essays, reference books, pedagogical materials, encyclopaedias etc.
        
        * “How-to texts” - 2 types can be distinguished: 1) instructive/ procedural - how to make something everyday, e.g cup of tea & 2) explanatory eg how tornado forms - includes definitions, descriptions & explanation
- - - - Audience, general or specific, (aka objective or subjective):
        
        Objective (or general) = modality used to inform about a topic of general interest in a clear & objective way to a wide range of population. Uncomplicated & easily understood by any ordinary addressee.
        
        Subjective (or specific) requires prior knowledge as the topic may be developed in a specific technical way. Related to scientific, technological, linguistic fields
      - Author´s purpose: can be: a) defining b ) classifying, c) illustrating d) comparing & contrasting e) showing relations of cause & effect f) stating a problem & presenting solutions.
        
        Defining: locates something in a class & explains specific characteristics of item. Eg: A daisy = kind of flower with long white petals.
        
        Classifying: Gives logical structure. Can move from particular → more general eg Casablanca is a drama film OR general → particular.* eg Drama films include Casablanca, Out of Africa…*
        
        Illustrating & giving examples: explanation backed up so addressee better understands. V Imp! The success of an explanatory text depends on the relevance of examples used. Eg Communication strategies = ways to communicate when you don’t know the language to use. Eg: paraphrasing, mime, translation, etc.
        
        Comparing & contrasting: establishes similarities & differences. Difference between comparing objects from same class (e.g. childhood v.s. adulthood) & analogy (2 different items e.g. horse v.s bird). Rhetorical comparison focuses on emphasis & originality. (Life is like a river).
        
        Cause & effect: analysis from simple → complex
        Cause = looking backwards eg smoke in kitchen, so something must be burning.
        Effect = looking forward, foreseeing results e.g. If we burn something there'll be smoke
      - According to these different purposes, we can distinguish 5 types* of expository texts with a particular structure
        
        1) Compare & contrast essay: Similarities & differences between 2 subjects (same category). Connections must be made clear & specific. Eg 2 oranges or 2 apples (not orange & apple). Colour, shape, size, etc.
        
        2) Cause & effect essay: Could be based on assumptions OR facts, but should be validated. Generally cause comes 1st but could be other way round. 2 ways to structure:
        Block structure:causes presented 1st, then effects
        Chain structure: Each cause followed by its effect
        
        3) Problem and Solution Essay: Subject examined from various aspects/perspectives prior to providing a solution. Similar to cause & effect. Typical structure: introducing problem(s), explains solution then discusses effects. Eg: problem - tigers under threat; solution = protecting habitats better
        
        4) Definition Essay: explains what the term/topic of the essay exactly means. Some concrete (glass, book); some abstract (love, honour, time). Focuses on purpose - what, why, & how.
        
        5) Sequence (aka chronological text): Chronology of events/list of steps in a procedure. Eg: a historical doc presenting events on timeline
        
        Some authors consider 7 types & include 6) main idea-detail (uses details to support a statement) & 7) proposition-support - (includes both arguments and counterarguments).
  - - - Following a classical guideline
        
        1) Introduction (presents the concepts to be explained)
        
        2) Development (can have several paragraphs - each a thematic unit which works as theme (new info) & rheme (old info) simultaneously. Use conjunct clauses (summative, adversative, temporal or causal) to present info in a logical way.
        
        3) Conclusion - summary of all info given about the subject
      - Small variation:
        
        1) Introduction:
        a) Directs reader's attention to subject/problem.
        b) Explains author's experience with it.
        
        2) Background:
        Explains nature of problem (history & causes) & why it’s important to reader.
        
        3) Thesis and explanation:
        State the thesis and develop it.
        
        4) Conclusion:
        a) Explain implications (social, philosophical, psychological, etc)
        b) Summarises discussion: problem, thesis & explanation.
  - - - Meyer (1981) proposes 3 levels in the analysis of explanatory texts:
        
        1) Sentence / micro propositional level - way ideas (propositions) are organised within sentences. Texts cohere or ´hang together` as interpretation of 1 element depends upon/presupposes another (Halliday & Hasan, 1976). Relies on cohesive devices e.g. reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion.
        
        2) Macro propositional level (paragraph level) - establishes logical/rhetorical relations between ideas.
        
        3) Top-level structure or overall organisation of the text as a whole.
      - The order of ideas, which follow a logical sequence, may appear in different ways:
        
        Analysing or deductive: ideas start from the most general points & narrow down → most particular/specific.
        
        Synthesising or inductive: 1st address
        most specific ideas, to open the way to more general.
        
        Synthesis: used in the intro & conclusion; it reduces everything to a few lines
        
        Parallel structure: develops 2 equally relevant & important ideas simultaneously
        
        Listing structure: a list of points, enumerated or lettered in sequence
- - - - COHESION = linking something with what has gone before (or comes after).
        
        Cohesive relationships established when interpretation of 1 element dependent on another. Types of cohesive relations = grammatical (inc. reference, substitution/ellipsis, conjunctions & syntactic repetition) lexical (repetition, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, collocations) & phonological (assonance, alliteration)
        
        In explanatory texts all ideas are interrelated (despite different paragraphs) so theme & rheme, anaphora & cataphora = always present.
        
        Theme-rheme relationship aka thematic progression - must be clear to enable full understanding. Cohesive devices help us follow the thematic progression by introducing new info whilst making reference to what's already been presented.
        
        Conjunctions - imp - establish links between ideas & thoughts, indicate how the subsequent sentence/clause is linked to the preceding one (because, as , since, while..)
        
        Connectors reflect cohesion & show logical development by establishing different rels between ideas: summative (in addition, moreover) restrictive (especially, in particular), causal (because, because of, due to), explanatory (i.e. as we can see), illustrating (for example, for instance, such as), previous reference (as stated before), reformulation (to put more simply, in other words) & conclusive (to sum up).
        
        Lexical cohesion: lexis doesn’t just depend on the subject matter but on the style:
        
        Subjective/informal: word choice less imp. More simple vocab, idioms, phrasal verbs, interjections.
        
        Objective/formal texts: more Latinate words, specialist language, more precise, less emotive in usage and vocab.
        
        Usually have lots of declarative verbs in present tense & indicative mood to introduce explanations
      - COHERENCE: interpretation of each sentence, relative to the interpretation of other sentences.
        
        Also refers to the logical dev. of ideas. Achieved both through cohesion & through employment of textuality standards of intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality & intertextuality. Shared knowledge also important. Eg, different to explain a disease to an audience of Drs vs 2º ESO.
- - - - However, main features = informative, clear, well-organised & impersonal/unbiased text.