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Exam 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Derived novel trait
    - - apomorphy shared by 2 or more taxa
      - Vascularization is a synapomorphy of tracheophytes
    - - Character younger than
    - - Character older than
    - - independent evolution of similar trait in 2 or more taxa
  - - - Growth by mitosis
        
        Prophase, anaphase, telophase (cytokinesis after)
    - - Procambium
      - Protoderm
      - Ground meristem
  - - - Shoot tip splits in 2
        
        Extinct Cooksonia
        
        Gives rise to polysporangiate
        
        Large complex plants w/ specialized organ systems
        
        Terminal Sporophyte Replaced
        
        Displacement of sporangia from shoot tips
        
        Necessary for indeterminancy
        
        Lycophytes
    - - Various branch structures in Lycophytes
      - Evolved before vascularization
      - Structure types
        
        Anisotomous
        
        Unequal branching
        
        Isotomous
        
        Equal branching
    - - Linear growth (like filamentous algae) to leafy shoot growth in 3D
  - - - Bryophyte gametophyte
      - Fern (monilophyte) gametophyte
      - Vascular plant sporophyte
    - - Lycophytes (multicellular)
      - Monilophytes (single cell)
      - Spermatophytes (multicellular)
- - - - Cell type and vascular architecture is diverse
    - - Tracheids
        
        Annular rings
        
        Extinct Cooksonia were thought to be true tracheids
  - - - Stayed small to reduce demand for water
      - Live in perennially wet substrates (stream sides)
      - Poikilohydric
        
        Water content changes with the moisture in the surrounding environment
        
        Equilibrate water potential through environmental source
        
        Water-storage extend
      - More derived homoiohydric
    - - Water conducting cell
        
        No plasmodesmata (imperforate)
        
        Aid in refilling from cavitation
      - Bryophytes
      - Apomorphic to true vascular tissue
      - No lignin
    - - Die at maturity
      - Thickened lignin walls
        
        Waterproofing
        
        Structural support
    - - Partially thickened
        
        Rhynia
        
        Vascular tissue not lignified
      - Lignified tracheids
        
        Horneophyton
        
        Annual/ Helical cell wall
    - - Water transport early
      - Lignified
      - Relatively long + wide
      - Ferns
        
        Tracheids/ vessel elements in rhizomes of some species
      - Lycophytes
      - Pit membranes
    - - Lignified w/ ornamented walls
        
        Banded or pitted
      - Evolved likely once
        
        Tracheophytes
      - Function in water transport + storage
      - Tapered ends
      - Rather narrow
    - - Function in water movement + support
      - Torus-margo pit membrane
        
        Move to prevent cavitation
    - - Angiosperms
        
        Homogenous pit membrane
      - Large diameter
      - Dead and maturity
      - Open, digested end walls
    - - Pit membranes are absent in perforations of mature vessel elements
      - Conductive area greater in end wall of vessel elements compared to lateral walls; tracheids are similar
      - Perforation plate morphology different than lateral-wall pitting in vessel elements; tracheid endwall similar to lateral
      - Vessel elements have a greater diameter than tracheids
      - Vessel elements are shorter than tracheids
    - - Vessels can have greater
      - Vessel elements may be short but the vessel can be much longer
      - yields greater conductivity in vessel elements
      - Lowers the cost (construction & transpiration)
      - Having vessels permits more fiber (hardwood vs softwood)
      - Downside is greater cavitation risk
    - - Apical meristem
      - Vacuolization
      - Elongation
      - Secondary cell wall
      - Dead at maturity
  - - - Widespread in bryophytes
      - Specialized plasmodesmata in end walls
      - Alignment along longitudinal arrays of endoplasmic microtubules*
      - Breakdown of tonoplast
      - Rarely some species have nuclear breakdown
      - Features common to sieve cells
    - - Transport of photosynthate, hormones, electrical signals
      - Earlier lineages with various types including transitional = sieve elements
      - Gymnosperms only these
      - Sieve area pores narrow
      - Uniform sieve area, mostly on ends + lacks plate
    - - Sieve plate (area w/ pores on end wall)
      - Many sieve tube elements = sieve tube
      - Primary cell wall
      - Living protoplasts at maturity
      - Callose + plugs
    - - Transport of photosynthate, electrical signals, hormones
      - Sieve tube element features
        
        Sieve plate w/ pores
        
        Lateral sieve area
        
        P protein
        
        May help in plug pores in response to leakage
        
        Plastid
        
        Smooth ER
        
        Lost ribosomes
        Highly folded
        
        Mitochondria
        
        Very few
      - Companion cell features
        
        Branched plasmodesmata
        
        Vacuole
        
        Nucleus
        
        Mitochondria
    - - Sieve tube & companion cell from same mother cell
      - Connected by a large quantity of plasmodesmata
      - One pore in sieve tube area branched into many on companion cell side
    - - Cell wall thickened
      - Cytoplasmic clearing
      - Callose deposited around terminal plasmodesmata
      - Nuclear break down
      - Formation of sieve plate & pores
  - - - Root and shoot have different arrangements
      - Key features to Monocots and Eudicots
    - - Complexity increased
      - Stem diameter increased
      - Plant height increased
      - Led to compartmentalization
      - Selected for a woody habit
    - - Siphonostele
        
        Ring of phloem, xylem, surrounding pith
      - Eustele
        
        Most complex
        
        Strands of phloem & xylem separated by parenchyma
        
        Progymnosperms
      - Protostele
        
        Earliest
        
        Solid vascular strand
        
        Phloem surrounds xylem or interspersed
    - - Exarch
        
        Protoxylem outside metaxylem
        
        Eg Protostele
      - Endarch
        
        Protoxylem in middle
        
        Eg eusteles, atactosteles
      - Mesarch
        
        Protoxylem surrounded by metaxylem
        
        Eg siphonostele
    - - Protostele + Exarch
    - - Siphonostele + Endarch
    - - Stem without pith
      - Atactostele
    - - Stem with pith
      - Eustele + Endarch
  - - - Amount of water loss per carbon gained increased after Silurian
      - Carboniferous period greatly drained atmospheric CO2
      - Water demand is relatively high
        
        Water transport system energetically efficient
        
        Minimal maintenance = cell death
        
        Transport energy minimal
        
        Water filtration close to soil access
    - - Higher rates of transpiration
        
        More xylem, wider xylem & longer conduits
      - Likely evolved 5 times
      - Increased competition for light selected for
        
        Taller plants
        
        More developed tree canopies
    - - Monocots
        
        Arborescent (no secondary growth)
    - - Extant lineages
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Euphyllophyte
      - Archaeopteris
        
        Devonian/Carboniferous
        
        Reproduced via spores
      - Lepidondrids
        
        Carboniferous
        
        ~320mya
        
        Vascular cambium only divided internally
    - - Produce secondary
        
        xylem (wood)
        
        phloem (inner bark)
        
        Ground tissue (rays)
      - Growth in girth
      - Complex plant development
      - Continuous circular ring growth
    - - Fusiform initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Xylem and phloem
        
        Fascicular cambium
      - Ray initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Ray cells
        
        Interfascicular cambium
      - Periclinal division
        
        More xylem & phloem
      - Anticlinal division
        
        Wider circle of vascular cambium
    - - Ring width determined by season and environment
      - Phloem is crushed
      - Alternation of early and late wood
        
        Spring to fall
        
        Larger elements to smaller elements
      - Xylem secondary cell wall robust
    - - Softwood
        
        Tracheids only
        
        Little room for fibers
        
        Gymnosperms
      - Hardwood
        
        Angiosperms
        
        Vessel elements’ efficiency permit space for fibers
    - - Sapwood
        
        Functions in water transport
      - Heartwood
        
        Functions in storage
        (can no longer transport water)
    - - Vascular tissue
        
        Xylem
        
        Wood
        
        Primary + secondary
        
        Phloem
        
        Inner bark
        
        Secondary
        
        Primary squished
        
        Lots of fibers
      - Periderm
        
        Outer bark
        
        Phellem, Phellogen, Phelloderm
      - Ground tissue
        
        Rays connect pith + cortex
    - - Periderm
        
        Phellem (cork), Phellogen (cork cambium), Phelloderm
      - Inner + Outer bark
- - - - Moves water from soil to atmosphere
        Major input of water cycle
    - - Potential for water to react or move
      - Due it it’s polarity
      - Attracted to other substances
      - Lower potential when it’s surrounded by ions
    - - Based on the free energy of water
      - Water moves from less negative water potentials to areas of more negative water potentials
    - - ψm = matric potential
        
        adhesion to structures such as cell walls, membranes, and soil particles
        
        Adhesion of water molecules to nondissolved structures
        
        Example, soil particles
        
        Always negative
        
        Significant only outside living systems in very dry soils
        
        Adhesion can only decrease water’s free energy, so ψm is always negative.
      - ψπ = osmotic potential
        
        effect that solutes have on ψ
        
        Difference between the solution and pure solvent resulted after adding solutes
        
        Adding solutes decreases water’s free energy, so ψπ is always negative
      - ψp = pressure potential
        
        effect that pressure has on ψ
        
        Hydrostatic pressure exerted on water in a cell
        
        In turgid plant cells positive value
        
        Xylem cells negative pressure due to tension
        
        Water at atmospheric pressure has a pressure potential of zero
        
        If water is under pressure, both pressure potential and water potential increase.
  - - - Transport assimilate from areas where it’s made = sources
      - Materials moved to sinks
    - - Sugars transported as sucrose
      - Actively transported into sieve elements
      - Decreases water potential of STE
    - - Creates a water potential gradient between sieve tube elements and surrounding cells
    - - Phloem is always close to xylem
      - Xylem has a much higher water potential than phloem
      - Water moves from less negative water potential to more negative water potential
    - - Sucrose actively transported from sieve tube
      - By companion cells
      - Stored as starch
      - Used in metabolism
  - - - Stomata open shortly after daybreak
      - Close at times of stress
      - Close at night
    - - Open stomata
      - Water evaporates from intercellular spaces
      - Starts the domino effect of water potentials
    - - Water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic solutions
        Root hairs greatly increase surface area
    - - Casparian strip of root endodermis
      - Forces symplastic movement
      - Embolism is an air pocket
    - - As H2O diffuses out of xylem in the leaves, cohesive forces pull H2O upward through the xylem, all the way from the roots.
      - H2O in the uppermost tracheary elements must lift the weight of the entire H2O column.
      - Tension is on these molecules, and consequently, the pressure potential is a negative number.
    - - Cohesion due to water polarity
        Adhesion along cell walls helps to fight gravity
- - - - Ground tissue
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains chloroplasts
      - Main function is photosynthesis
    - - Ground tissue
      - Thickened primary cell walls
      - Main function in flexible support
      - Found in bundle sheath of veins in some species
    - - Xylem
        
        Tracheids
        
        Water transport
      - Phloem
        
        Sieve tube element/ sieve cells
        
        Companion cells/ albuminous cells
        
        Photosynthate transport
      - In veins
    - - Dermal tissue
      - Epidermal cells
      - Guard cells
      - Often cutenized
      - Main function in protecting the internal tissues
    - - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains air spaces from cells being digested
      - Main function permit gas-exchange
      - Large air pockets for buoyancy in aquatic plants
      - Ground tissue
  - - - Microphyll
      - Single vascular trace along center of blade
      - Vascular strand connects directly to stem
      - Mesophyll
      - Epidermis
      - Stomata
    - - Epidermis
        
        Adaxial (outer) & abaxial (towards stem)
        
        Covered by cuticle
        
        Contains stomata
        
        bulliform cells
        
        helpful for the rolling and unrolling
      - Veins
      - Mesophyll
    - - Epidermis
        
        Dermal tissue
        
        Epidermal cell
        
        Guard cell
        
        Cuticle
        
        Upper & lower
      - Mesophyll
        
        Palisade
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Spongy
        
        Gas exchange
      - Veins
        
        Xylem on top phloem on bottom
        
        Bundle sheat
  - - - High atmospheric global temperatures
      - Low stomatal densities
        
        Increase permit greater evaporative cooling
      - Lacking efficient vascular transport in leaves
        
        Burn up leaf
        Vascular embolism
      - Low capacities for water uptake prior to root evolution
    - - Earliest evidence of true leaves
        
        Lycophytes
        microphylls/ lycophylls
      - Euphyllophytes
        Independent evolution
    - - Indeterminate growth proceeded leaf development
      - Leaves initiated in regular patterns around stem
      - Optimize light interception for photosynthesis
    - - Microphyll
        
        Lycophyte
        Mitosis of 2 epidermal cells
      - Frond
        
        Monilophyte
        
        Mitosis of single apical cell
        
        Shoot like development
      - Euphylls
        
        Seed plants
        
        Pool of recruited cells
        
        From flanks of multicellular shoot apical meristem
      - Mitosis of a single cell
        
        Liverwort
        Moss
    - - Lycophyte leaves
      - Progressive elaboration of epidermal outgrowths
      - Vascular strands entered later
      - Fossils consistent
        
        Asteroxylon
      - Living evidence
        
        Selaginella draussiana
        2 epidermal cells grow to form leaf pair
    - - Evolution of euphylls
      - Overtopping
        
        Unequal branching (primary & side)
      - Plantation
        
        Flattening of axes into 2 dimensional
      - Webbing
        
        Develop thin tissue between axes of branches
        
        Branches becomes veins
        
        Webbing becomes mesophyll
    - - Liverwort gametophyte
      - Moss gametophyte
      - Lycophyte sporophyte
      - Monilophyte sporophyte
      - Spermatophyte sporophyte
      - Convergent evolution for Leaves
- - - - Lepidodendrales extinct
      - Dichotomous rooting system
      - Lateral stigmarian rootlets
        
        Root hairs, mixed reports/ Highly branched
      - Similar to roots
        
        No chlorophyll
        
        No stomata
        
        Develop gravitropically
      - No root cap
      - Extant species Lycophyte
        
        Bifurcating
        
        With root hairs
        
        No quiescent center
    - - Rhynie chert, Zosterophyllophyta, Early Devonian
      - Upright stem, prostrate stems, downward (rootlike) stems
    - - Uni-multicellular projections
      - Anchorage
      - Some with mineral uptake
      - Genes
        
        Predate land plants
        
        Play a role in root hair development
    - - Early without root hairs
      - Intact epidermis covered root tip
        
        Anticlinal divisions only
      - Devonian lycophyte Asteroxylon mackiei
      - Independent evolution of endodermis + root cap
    - - Diversity of arrangement used to infer phylogeny
        
        Number of initial cells differs
      - Similar genes across plant taxa
      - Similar genes in shoot to root
  - - - Highly differentiated multicellular axis
      - Found only in sporophytes of vascular plants
      - Functions
        
        Anchors plant body to substrate
        
        Absorbs water
        
        Absorbs dissolved minerals
      - Common features
        
        Apical meristem & root cap
        
        Pericycle
        
        Endodermis
        
        Root hairs
        
        Cortex
    - - Quiescent center
        
        Rarely divides
        
        Backup plan
        
        Maintains initial cells
      - Behind root cap
    - - Lateral
        
        Adventitious
        
        Derived from stems & leaves
        Dominant in monocots
        
        Seminal
        
        Derived from mesocotyl
      - Primary
        
        Derived from radicle
        
        Main root
        
        Mainly dominant in eudicots
        
        Mainly ephemeral in monocots
    - - Evolved independently
        
        Lycophyte
        
        Euphyllophyte
      - Protect underlying tissues
      - Cells that slough off
      - Secrete mucilage
    - - Pluripotent
      - Initiation of lateral root development
      - Just inside the endodermis
    - - Single celled
      - Major absorption of water and minerals
      - Via osmosis from hypotonic soil solution to hypertonic cells
      - Delicate
      - Short-lived
    - - Large storage area
      - Outermost layers show
        
        Hypodermis
        
        Exodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Suberized lamella
      - Bound by endodermis and epidermis
    - - Casparian strip
      - Prevents apoplastic movement of water
      - Forces water to move through cell membranes to be filtered
  - - - Selaginella sp example
      - No root cap
      - No root hairs
    - - Epidermis
      - Cortex
      - Endodermis
      - Casparian strip
      - Pericycle
      - Xylem
      - Phloem
      - Pith
    - - Epidermis
      - Cortex
      - Endodermis
      - Casparian strip
      - Pericycle
      - Xylem
      - Phloem
      - NO PITH