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Exam 3 Material - Coggle Diagram

- - - - PMAT
        
        Metaphase
        
        Anaphase
        
        Prophase
        
        Telophase
    - - Charophytes are mainly filamentous.
  - - - Shoot Apical Meristem
        
        Totipotent Region
        
        Continuously Divides
        
        Matures in to transition tissues.
        
        Ground Meristem
        
        Protoderm
        
        Procambium
    - - Large Complex Plants
      - Specialized Organ Systems
  - - - Isotomous
    - - Anisotomous
  - - - Produce New Organs
      - Produce New Tissue from Shoot Complex
  - - - Bryophyte gametophyte
      - Fern (monilophyte) gametophyte
      - Vascular plant sporophyte
    - - Lycophytes (multicellular)
      - Monilophytes (single cell)
      - Spermatophytes (multicellular)
- - - - All have vascular tissue
      - Cell type + vascular archtecture diverse
      - Synapomorphy
    - - Tracheids
        
        Cooksonia
        
        Though to be true tracheids
        
        Annular thickenings
    - - Early vascular group
      - Created towering forest during Carboniferous period
  - - - Poikilohydric
        
        Equilibrate water potential through environmental source
        
        Water-storage extend
        
        Water content changes with moisture in environment
    - - Bryophytes
      - Water conducting cells
        
        No plasmodesmata
        
        Aid in refilling from cavitation
        
        No lignin
      - Apomorphic trait to true vascular tissue
    - - Dead at maturity
      - Thickened lignin walls
        
        Waterproofing
        
        Structural support
    - - Lignified tracheids
        
        Horneophyton
        
        Annular cell wall
        
        Helical cell wall
      - During Devonian,
        
        Increase in xylem content
        
        Increase in tracheid size
        
        Increase in trachedid reinforcement
      - Partially thickened
        
        Rhynia
        
        Vascular tissue not lignified
    - - Relatively long and wide
      - Ferns
        
        Tracheids + vessel elements in rhizomes of some species
      - Lycophytes
      - Water transport (no support)
      - Pit membranes
      - Lignified
    - - Function in both
        
        Water transport
        
        Support
      - Evolved likely once
        
        Tracheophytes
      - Tapered at ends
      - Rather narrow
      - Lignified with ornamented walls
        
        Banded or pitted
    - - Function in water movement + support
      - Torus-margo pit membrane
        
        Move to prevent cavitation
    - - Large diameter
      - Dead and maturity
      - Angiosperms
        
        Homogenous pit membrane
      - Open, digested eng walls
    - - Perforation plate morphology different than lateral-wall pitting in vessel elements; tracheid endwall similar to lateral
      - Vessel elements have a greater diameter than tracheids
      - Conductive area greater in end wall of vessel elements compared to lateral walls; tracheids similar
      - Vessel elements are shorter than tracheids
      - Pit membranes are absent in perforations of mature vessel elements
    - - Yields greater conductivity in vessel elements
      - Vessel elements may be short but the vessel can be much longer
      - Vessels can have greater max diameter and length
      - Lowers cost of construction and transpiration
      - Having vessels permits more fiber (hardwood vs softwood)
      - Vessels = greater cavitation risk
    - - Dead at maturity
      - Elongation
      - Vacuolization
      - Apical meristem
      - Secondary cell wall
        
        Porous
        
        Reticulate
        
        Helical
        
        Annular
  - - - Widespread in bryophytes
      - Specialized plasmodesmata in end walls
      - Alignment along longitudinal arrays of endoplasmic microtubules*
        
        Plastids
        
        Mitochondria
        
        ER vesicles
      - Breakdown of tonoplast
        
        Mix vacuolar & cytoplasmic contents
      - Rarely some species have nuclear breakdown
      - Features common to sieve cells
    - - Transport of
        
        Photosynthate
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric signals
      - ac aka Strasburger cells
      - Gymnosperms only these
      - Earlier lineages with various types including transitional = sieve elements
      - Sieve area pores narrow
      - Uniform sieve areas
        
        Mostly on ends
        
        Lacks sieve plate
    - - Sieve plate
        
        Area with many sieve pores
        Usually on end wall
      - Many sieve tube elements together = sieve tube
      - Primary cell wall
      - Living protoplasts at maturity
        
        Few organelles (ER)
      - Callose & callose plugs
    - - Sieve tube elements
        
        Sieve plate
        
        Sieve pore
        
        Lateral sieve area
        
        P protein
        
        May help in plug pores in response to leakage
        
        Plastid
        
        Smooth ER
        
        Lost ribosomes
        Highly folded
        
        Mitochondria
        
        Very few
      - Companion cell elements
        
        Branched plasmodesmata
        
        Vacuole
        
        Nucleus
        
        Mitochondria
      - Transport of
        
        Hormones
        
        Electrical signals
        
        Photosynthate
    - - Sieve tube & companion cell from same mother cell
      - Connected by a large quantity of plasmodesmata
      - One pore in sieve tube area branched into many on companion cell side
    - - Cell wall thickened
      - Cytoplasmic clearing
      - Callose deposited around terminal plasmodesmata
      - Nuclear break down
      - Formation of sieve plate & pores
  - - - Root and shoot have different arrangements
        
        Roots and shoots have different arrangement depending on taxa
      - Key features to Monocots and Eudicots
      - Monocot
        
        Root with pith
        Stem without pith
      - Eudicot
        
        Root without pith
        Stem with pith
    - - Complexity increased
      - Stem diameter increased
      - Plant height increased
      - Led to compartmentalization
      - Selected for a woody habit
    - - Protostele
      - Exarch
    - - Siphonostele
      - Endarch
    - - Atactostele
        
        Numerous vascular bundles scattered throughout stem
      - No pith
      - Vascular bundles often surrounded by sclerenchyma
        
        Bundle sheath
    - - Eustele
        
        Phloem outside xylem
        Bundles separated by parenchyma
      - Endarch
        
        Metaxylem outside protoxylem
      - Vascular bundle supported by sclerenchyma, bundle cap
    - - Siphonostele (~407Ma)
        
        Ring of phloem, xylem, surrounding pith
      - Eustele (~390Ma)
        
        Most complex
        
        Strands of phloem & xylem separated by parenchyma
        
        progymnosperms
      - Protostele (~420Ma)
        
        Earliest
        
        Solid vascular strand
        
        Phloem surrounds xylem or interspersed
    - - Based on xylem maturation
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Usually smaller in diameter
        
        1st xylem to mature
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Usually larger diameter cells
        
        Develops later
      - Mesarch
        
        Protoxylem surrounded by metaxylem
        eg siphonosteles
      - Endarch
        
        Protoxylem in middle
        eg eusteles, atactosteles
      - Exarch
        
        Protoxylem outside metaxylem
        Eg protosteles
  - - - Amount of water loss per carbon gained increased after Silurian
      - Carboniferous period greatly drained atmospheric CO2
      - Water demand is relatively high
        
        Water transport system energetically efficient (don’t starve)
        
        Minimal maintenance = cell death
        
        Transport energy minimal
        
        Water filtration close to soil access
    - - Increased competition for light selected for
        
        Taller plants
        More developed tree canopies
      - Higher rates of transpiration
        
        More xylem, wider xylem & longer conduits
      - Likely evolved 5 times
    - - Monocotyledonae
      - Arborescent
        
        No secondary growth
    - - Lepidondrids
        
        Carboniferous
        
        ~320mya
        
        Vascular cambium only divided internally
      - Archaeopteris
        
        Devonian/Carboniferous
        Reproduced via spores
      - Extant lineages
        
        Lycophytes
        Euphyllophyte
    - - Complex plant development
      - Growth in girth
      - Produce secondary
        
        xylem (wood)
        
        phloem (inner bark)
        
        Ground tissue (rays)
      - Continuous circular ring growth
    - - Fusiform initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Xylem and phloem
        
        Fascicular cambium
      - Periclinal division
        
        More xylem & phloem
      - Ray initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Ray cells
        
        Interfascicular cambium
      - Anticlinal division
        
        Wider circle of vascular cambium
    - - Initials
        
        Ray - radial
        
        Fusiform - longitudinal
      - Wood block
        
        Unique for each face
        
        Longitudinal
        
        Transverse
        
        Radial
    - - Xylem secondary cell walls robust
      - Phloem is crushed
      - Ring width determined by season and environment
      - Alternation of
        
        Early wood/ Late wood
    - - Based on season or environment
      - Spring to fall
      - Larger elements to smaller elements
    - - Sapwood
        
        Functions in water transport
      - Heartwood
        
        Functions in storage
        Can no longer transport water
    - - Softwood
        
        Tracheids only
        
        Little room for fibers
        
        Gymnosperms
      - Hardwood
        
        Angiosperm
        
        Vessel elements’ efficiency permit space for fibers
    - - Vascular tissue
        
        Xylem
        
        Primary & secondary
        
        Wood
        
        Plhoem
        
        Inner bark
        
        Secondary
        
        Primary squished
        
        Lots of fibers
      - Periderm
        
        Outer bark
        
        Phellem
        
        Phellogen
        
        Phelloderm
      - Ground tissue
        
        Rays connect
        
        Pith and Cortex
    - - Inner bark
        
        Phloem + cortex
      - Outer bark
      - Periderm
        
        Phellem
        
        Cork
        
        Phellogen
        
        Cork cambium
        
        Phelloderm
- - - - Lepidodendrales extinct
      - Dichotomous rooting system
      - Lateral stigmarian rootlets
        
        Root hairs, mixed reports
        
        Highly branched
    - - No chlorophyll
      - No stomata
      - Develop gravitropically
    - - Uni-multicellular projections
      - Anchorage
      - Some with mineral uptake
      - Genes
        
        Predate land plants and
        play a role in root hair development
    - - Bifurcating
      - With root hairs
      - No quiescent center
    - - Rhynie chert, Zosterophyllophyta, Early Devonian
      - Upright stem, prostrate stems, downward (rootlike) stems
    - - Early without root hairs
      - Intact epidermis covered root tip
        
        Anticlinal divisions only
      - Devonian lycophyte Asteroxylon mackiei
      - Independent evolution of
        
        Endodermis
        
        Root cap
    - - Diversity of arrangement used to infer phylogeny
        
        Number of initial cells differs
      - Similar genes across plant taxa
      - Similar genes in shoot to root
  - - - Primary root
        
        Derived from radicle
        
        Main root
        
        Mainly dominant in eudicots
        
        Mainly ephemeral in monocots
      - Lateral root
        
        Adventitious roots
        
        Derived from stems & leaves
        Dominant in monocots
        
        Seminal roots
        
        Derived from mesocotyl
    - - Highly differentiated multicellular axis
      - Found only in sporophytes of vascular plants
      - Functions
        
        Anchors plant body to substrate
        
        Absorbs water
        
        Absorbs dissolved minerals
      - Common features
        
        Apical meristem & root cap
        
        Pericycle
        
        Endodermis
        
        Root hairs
        
        Cortex
    - - Behind root cap
      - Quiescent center
        
        Rarely divides
        
        Backup plan
        
        Maintains initial cells
    - - Evolved independently
        
        Lycophyte + Euphyllophyte
      - Protect underlying tissues
      - Cells that slough off
      - Secrete mucilage
    - - Pluripotent
      - Initiation of lateral root development
      - Just inside the endodermis
    - - Single celled
      - Major absorption of water and minerals
      - Via osmosis from hypotonic soil solution to hypertonic cells
      - Delicate
      - Short-lived
    - - Outermost layers may show
        
        Hypodermis
        
        Exodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        Suberized lamella
      - Bound by endodermis and epidermis
      - Large storage area
    - - Casparian strip
      - Prevents apoplastic movement of water
      - Forces water to move through cell membranes to be filtered
  - - - Epidermis
      - Cortex
      - Endodermis
      - Casparian strip
      - Pericycle
      - Xylem
      - Phloem
      - Pith
    - - Epidermis
      - Cortex
      - Endodermis
      - Casparian strip
      - Pericycle
      - Xylem
      - Phloem
    - - Selaginella sp example
      - No root cap
      - No root hairs
- - - - Earliest evidence of true leaves
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Microphylls/ Lycophylls
      - Euphyllophytes
        
        independent volution
    - - Indeterminate growth proceeded leaf development
      - Leaves initiated in regular patterns around stem
      - Optimize light interception for photosynthesis
    - - High atmospheric global temperatures
      - Low stomatal densities
        
        Increase permit greater evaporative cooling
      - Low capacities for water uptake prior to root evolution
      - Lacking efficient vascular transport in leaves
        
        Burn up leaf
        Vascular embolism
    - - Leaves had at least 5 independent origins
        
        Liverwort gametophyte
        
        Moss gametophyte
        
        Lycophyte sporophyte
        
        Monilophyte sporophyte
        
        Spermatophyte sporophyte
    - - Mitosis of a single cell
        
        Moss
        
        Moss midvein cell layer
        
        Liverwart
      - Microphyll
        
        Lycophyte
        
        Mitosis of 2 epidermal cells
      - Frond
        
        Monilophyte
        
        Mitosis of single apical cell
        
        Shoot like development
      - Euphylls
        
        Seed plants
        
        Pool of recruited cells
        
        From flanks of multicellular shoot apical meristem
    - - Lycophyte leaves
      - Progressive elaboration of epidermal outgrowths
      - Vascular strands entered later
      - Fossils consistent
        
        Asteroxylon
      - Living evidence
        
        Selaginella draussiana
        
        2 epidermal cells grow to form leaf pair
    - - Evolution of euphylls
      - Overtopping
        
        Unequal branching (primary & side)
      - Webbing
        
        Develop thin tissue between axes of branches
        
        Branches becomes veins
        
        Webbing becomes mesophyll
      - By Devonian euphylls widespread
      - Planation
        
        Flattening of axes into 2 dimensional
  - - - Microphyll
      - Single vascular trace along center of blade
      - Vascular strand connects directly to stem
      - Mesophyll
      - Epidermis
      - Stomata
    - - Mesophyll
      - Epidermis
        
        Adaxial (outer) & abaxial (towards stem)
        
        Covered by cuticle
        
        Contains stomata
        
        bulliform cells
      - Veins
        
        Surrounded by bundle sheaths
    - - Epidermis
        
        Dermal tissue
        
        Epidermal cells
        
        Guard cells
        
        Cuticle
        
        Upper & lower
      - Mesophyll
        
        Palisade
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Spongy
        
        Gas exchange
      - Veins
        
        Bundle sheath cells
        
        Xylem on top phloem on bottom
  - - - Xylem
        
        Tracheids + water transport
      - Phloem
        
        Sieve tube element/ sieve cells
        
        Companion cells/ albuminous cells
        
        Photosynthate transport
      - In veins
    - - Ground tissue
      - Thickened primary cell walls
      - Main function in flexible support
      - Found in bundle sheath of veins in some species
    - - Dermal tissue
      - Epidermal cells
      - Guard cells
      - Often cutenized
      - Main function in protecting the internal tissues
      - water leaves veins in phyllad, out of epidermis, and into atmosphere
    - - Ground tissue
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains air spaces from cells being digested
      - Main function permit gas-exchange
      - Large air pockets for buoyancy in aquatic plants
    - - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains chloroplasts
      - Main function is photosynthesis
      - Ground tissue
- - - - Moves water from soil to atmosphere
      - Major input of water cycle
    - - Potential for water to react or move
      - Due it it’s polarity
      - Attracted to other substances
      - Lower potential when it’s surrounded by ions
    - - Based on the free energy of water
      - Water moves from less negative water potentials to areas of more negative water potentials
    - - ψ = ψp + ψπ + ψm
        
        Pressure potential
        
        effect that pressure has on ψ
        If water is under pressure, both pressure potential and water potential increase.
        
        Osmotic potential
        
        effect that solutes have on ψ
        Adding solutes decreases water’s free energy, so ψπ is always negative.
        
        Matric potential
        
        adhesion to structures such as cell walls, membranes, and soil particles
        Adhesion can only decrease water’s free energy, so ψm is always negative.
    - - Hydrostatic pressure exerted on water in a cell
      - In turgid plant cells positive value
      - Xylem cells negative pressure due to tension
      - Water at atmospheric pressure has a pressure potential of zero
    - - Difference between the solution and pure solvent resulted after adding solutes
    - - Adhesion of water molecules to nondissolved structures
      - Example, soil particles
      - Always negative
      - Significant only outside living systems in very dry soils
  - - - Stomata open shortly after daybreak
      - Close at times of stress
      - Close at night
    - - Open stomata
      - Water evaporates from intercellular spaces
      - Starts the domino effect of water potentials
    - - Water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic solutions
      - Root hairs greatly increase surface area
    - - Casparian strip of root endodermis
      - Forces symplastic movement
      - Embolism is an air pocket
        
        Completely makes tracheary element non functional
    - - As H2O diffuses out of xylem in the leaves, cohesive forces pull H2O upward through the xylem, all the way from the roots.
      - H2O in the uppermost tracheary elements must lift the weight of the entire H2O column.
      - Tension is on these molecules, and consequently, the pressure potential is a negative number.
    - - Cohesion due to water polarity
        Adhesion along cell walls helps to fight gravity
  - - - Transport assimilate from areas where it’s made = sources
      - Materials moved to sinks
        
        Actively growing areas + Storage areas
    - - Sugars transported as sucrose
      - Actively transported into sieve elements
      - Decreases water potential of STE
    - - Creates a water potential gradient between sieve tube elements and surrounding cells
    - - \
      - Phloem is always close to xylem
      - Xylem has a much higher water potential than phloem
      - Water moves from less negative water potential to more negative water potential
    - - Sucrose actively transported from sieve tube
      - By companion cells
      - Stored as starch
      - Used in metabolism
        
        aerobic respiration