Classification of consonants (are sounds which made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth or nasal cavities)
According to the manner of articulation
According to the degree of noise
According to the place of articulation
Occlusive consonants are sounds in the production which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth.
Noise consonants
Occlusive-constrictive (affricates) consonants or affricatesare noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction.
The degree of force of articulation
The work of the vocal cords
Voiceless (If the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the consonants are voiceless)
Voiced (When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice)
[b, d, g, v, ð, z, ʒ, dz]
[p, t, k, f, Ө, s, h, ʃ, ʧ]
Weak noise consonants (are produced with a relatively weak breath effort) - lenis
Strong noise consonants (are produced with more muscular energy and stronger breath effort) - fortis
[b, d, g, v, ð, z, ʒ, dz]
[p, t, k, f, Ө, s, h, ʃ, ʧ]
Lingual
Glottal (the sound is articulated in the glottis)
Labial consonants are made by the lips
Sonorants (the sounds are made with tone prevailling over noise because of a rather wide air passage)
Bilabial consonants are produced when both lips are active
Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth
[m, n, ŋ, w, l, r, j]
[p, b,m, w]
[f, v].
Mediolingual (are produced with the front part of the tongue)
Backlingual (velar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate)
Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue
[h]
[k, g, ŋ]
According to the place of obstraction forelingual may be
Apical the tip of the tongue is active [t, d, s, z, tʃ, n, l].
Palatal (are made with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate)
Interdental consonants are made with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth:
[j]
Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge: the English
Dental consonants are produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth. (Only Russian)
Post-alveolar consonants are made by the tip or the blade of the tongue is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it.
Palato-alveolar consonants are made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation.
[dʒ, tʃ, ʒ, ʃ]
Dorsal (it the blade of the tongue takes part in the articulation, the tip being massive and lowered as in the case of the Russian, for example, [т, д, н]
[r]
[t, d, s, z, n, l].
[ð, Ө].
Cacuminal, if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but a depression is formed in the blade of the tongue [r]
Plosives are consonants in the production of which the breath is completely stopped at some point articulation and then it is released with a slight explosion.
voiced [b, d, g]
voiceless [p, t, k|
Occlusive sonorants are also made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose, so they are nasal.
The English occlusive nasal sonorants: [m, n, ŋ]
voiced [dʒ]
voiceless [tʃ]
Rolled consonants are sounds pronounced with periodical momentary obstructions when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times against the teeth ridge and vibrates in the air stream(Russian sound [р])
According to the force of articulation
strong (voiceless)
weak (voiced)
Constrictive are sounds in the production of which the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted.
Fricatives are sounds in the articulation of which the air passage is constricted and the air escapes though the narrowing friction.
[v, f, θ, ð, z, s, ʃ, ʒ, h]
Constrictive sonorants are sounds which made an incomplete obstruction but with a rather wide air passage, so the tone prevails over the noise.
[w, r, l, j]