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The Scientific
Method - Coggle Diagram
The Scientific
Method
Scientific Thinking
- science is a way of thinking
- science should be clear and testable
- science follows the assumptions of science
- determinism, parsimony, empiricism, verification, falsification
- scientific thinking updates based on the evidence
the goals of science
prediction: make predictions from one variable to another
- identify the factors that indicate when an event will occur
- scientific prediction: we are able to use the measurement of one variable to predict the measurement of another variable.
- the relationship between variables:
- does X occur with Y
- does X change in relationship to Y
- the correlation between two variables
- very important for scientific research
explanation: provide causal explanation regarding a range of variables
- the ultimate goal of science
- is there a causal relationship between X and Y
- does X cause Y
- we need to test the causal relationship
- requires research methods and experimental design
- requires statistics to evaluate data
description: observing phenomena in a systematic manner
- needed for prediction
- might want to observe a simple behaviour or something more complex
The Scientific
Method
observation: scientific studies begin with an initial observation
- a point of interest for further investigation
- you must be able to find a way to collect observable evidence
- past methods are important for the scientific method
- try to answer questions raised by existing theories
hypothesis: a very specific statement about the predicted/expected relationship between variables.
- usually phrased in the form "if i do then will happen"
- usually predicts the effect of a manipulated variable on a measured variable.
- states that a relationship should exists between variables, the expected direction of the relationship, and how this might be measured.
test: the scientific method requires that you are able to test the hypothesis.
- design an experiment
- use a good design
- collect appropriate data
- control as many aspects as possible
- research methods:
- is the experiment reliable?
- are your measurements valid?
analyse and conclude: consider whether the data supports your hypothesis
- is there sufficient evidence?
- are further studies required?
- are the results statistically significant.
- conclusion: the researcher's interpretations of the events
- based on the results of the experiment
- explain the results of the experiment
update or discard: the scientific method is dynamic
- must be able to update your hypothesis when there is a lack of data to support it
- must be able to discard your hypothesis when the evidence refutes it
- requires many aspects of critical thinking
- openness to the possibility that you are incorrect.
- evaluation of the evidence
- ability to change your opinion with new evidence
theory: an organised system of assumption and principles that attempts to explain certain phenomena and how they are related.
- many hypotheses are tested and data is collected before a theory is formed
- provides a framework regarding the facts.
- theories can also lead to further questions and hypotheses
- the scientific method will not tell you what is "true" or "proven"
- it is an interactive process
- peer reviews
- good science should always be clear
- never claim to find the one cause
Operationalism
- how to quantify (empirically) what you mean
- operationalising variables allows you to specifty exactly what you mean in your hypothesis/theory.
- it allows for the variable to be measured/quantified
- it also allows you to indirectly define unobservable variables
operational definition: a detailed description of the procedures or operations used to measure or manipulate the variables
- involves providing clear instructions about how you have defined a variable and how it can be measured or quantified.
- important because not everyone interprets the same variables in the same way, and it ensures that the hypothesis is clear.
Experimental Variables
independent variables: a variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter
- experimental variable of interest
- isolate this variable from others
- independent because it is not controlled by the participant's behaviour, and it is not influenced by the dependent variable.
- true independent variables are randomly assigned by the experimenter
- controls for systematic differences
- allows for the experimenter to isolate different conditions of interest
- has multiple (normally 2) levels, related to the different experimental conditions in the experiment
- eg: drug vs placebo
quasi-independent variables: preexisting variable that is often a characteristic inherent to an individual, which differentiates the groups or conditions being compared in a research study
- commonly used as grouping variables
- natural: country of birth, biological sex, age
- attribute: individual difference variables that fall on a spectrum, level of risk-taking, anxiety
dependent variables: the variable used to assess or measure the effects of the independent variable.
- dependent on the independent variable.
- measures a behaviour or response for each treatment condition of the experiment
- never manipulated, only ever measure.
Pseudoscience
- a collection of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be factual and scientific.
- astrology, phrenology, crystal healing, leeching, extra sensory perception (ESP), homeopathy, chiropractors
how does science differ from pseudoscience?
- the subject matter of science and pseudoscience often overlap
- phrenology > biology and psychology
- the goals of science and pseudoscience often overlap
- some pseudoscience uses scientific methodology and techniques but they are not applied correctly.
- most pseudoscience does not use the scientific method.
- pseudoscience does not change when sufficient evidence suggests that the prediction or theory is wrong.
- should update the claim or theory if there is no evidence > need to be open to doing so.
pseudoscience is not science
- pseudoscience does not refer to a different kind of research, it refers to thinking and scientific research that has been flawed and refuses to change.
- normally involves one or both of these factors.
- flawed/biased evidence from observations or experiments
- resistance to change or let go of ideas/theories/hypotheses
homeopathy: what it can cause, it can also cure > similar to vaccines.
- claim: dilution makes the medicine stronger
- logically flawed > not clear scientific claim
- no empirical evidence and not testable
- practice: make a low-concentration liquid, then dilute. repeat dilution
- normally homeopathic dilutions involve a 10⁶⁰ fold dilution.
- claim that even if the dilution doesn't contain the actual substance anymore, the water it was mixed in retains the "memory" of the substance.
- originally proposed by a scientist in 1988.
- methodologically flawed- published with an editorial that pointed out the numerous laws of physics and chemistry that are violated if this were true.
- principle of parsimony/ockhams razor: if we accept that water has "memory" > the idea does not account for a large amount for experimental data that current physics and chemistry account for
- does not meet the criteria for empiricism
- controlled experiments failed to replicate the findings.
- testimonial evidence says it works
- normally argued that a homeopathic remedy is tailored to the individual, so it makes it hard to compare to other medicines that are 'one size fits all'.
- testimonials are based on individuals
- can't be generalised to a wider population
- can't test this type of evidence > not empirical
- biased sampling
- tend to never see negative testimonials
- need to use a large number of participants
- need to randomly sample from the population