Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Chemistry, image, What-does-a-Lewis-Dot-Structure-Represent, image, image,…

- - - - →
- - - - Types
        
        Gaseous
        
        Ex. Air
        
        Liquid
        
        Gas in liquid (ex. Carbonated water)
        
        Solid in liquid (ex. Sugar in water)
        
        Liquid in liquid (ex. Alcohol beverages)
        
        Solid
        
        Gas in solid (ex. Hydrogen in Platinum)
        
        Liquid in solid
        (ex. Amalgam)
        
        Solid in solid
        (ex. Metal alloy)
      - Solubility
        
        Saturated
        
        Unsaturated
        
        Supersaturated
  - - - Balanced ionic equation
        
        Material balance
        
        Electrical balance
  - - - Strong acid
      - Weak acid
    - - Strong base
      - Weak base
    - - Acid base reaction
        
        Weak acid + strong base
        
        Weak acid + insoluble base
        
        Strong acid + insoluble base
        
        Acid + weak base
- - - - Molecular Compound
        
        Hydrocarbon
        
        Binary Compound
      - Ionic Compound
        
        Cation + Anion
  - - - pure substance
        
        single kind of matter that cannot be seperated
        
        element
        
        cannot be decomposed by chemical reaction
        
        Pure chemical substance, consists of a single type of atom
        
        compound
        
        two or more kinds of different elements that are bonded together
      - Mixture
        
        compound that consists of two or more chemical component that are not chemically linked
    - - Solid
        
        Definite shape and volume
      - Liquid
        
        No definite shape
        
        Definite volume
      - Gas
        
        No definite shape and volume
  - - - structural formula
        
        source : https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/2-4-chemical-formulas
      - ball and stick model
        
        source : https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-ball-and-stick-and-space-filling-model/
      - space-filling model
        
        source : http://www.chem.ucla.edu/harding/IGOC/S/space_filling_model.html
  - - - consists of
        
        proton
        
        electron
        
        neutron
      - history of atom
- - - - Implies that we can move energy around in various ways, but cannot change or destroyed it.
        
        Consist the study of
        
        Energy
        
        Moving objects
        
        Kinetic Energy
        
        Stored energy
        
        Potential Energy
        
        Chemical reactions
        
        Chemical Energy
        
        Formula
        
        ΔE = q + w
        
        ΔE as the energy change
        
        q as the heat transferred
        
        w as the work done
      - Energy cannot be created or destroyed
        
        Law conservation of energy
        
        Units
        
        Temperature as the proportional to the average kinetic energy of its particles
        
        Joule or Kilojoule as the SI unit of energy
        
        Heat as the kinetic energy that is transferred on the molecular level between objects cause by differences in their temperature
        
        Calorie or Kilocalorie as the energy needed to raise the temperature (of 1 gr of water by 1 degree Celsius)
    - - Chemical Energy
        
        potential energy resides in chemical bonds
        
        Chemical Bonds
        
        net attractive force of nuclei and electrons in compounds
        
        The strength of it measured by the energy needed to break, and energy released to form.
        
        Chemical Bond Breaking
        
        Endothermic
        
        Requires Energy
        
        ΔH > 0
        
        Chemical Bond Making
        
        Exothermic
        
        Releases Energy
        
        ΔH < 0
  - - - Measurement amount of heat absorbed or release by an object in a chemical reaction.
        
        System and Its Surroundings
        
        Open System
        
        Ability to gain or lose mass and energy
        
        Closed System
        
        Ability to absorb or release energy, except mass
        
        Isolated System
        
        Cannot exchange energy or matter
    - - Energy transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference in temperature
        
        Formula
        
        q = C (t final - t initial) = CΔt
        
        Can be simplified as
        
        q = m s Δt
        
        q as the heat absorbed or released
        
        C as the heat capacity
        
        Δt as the change of temperature
        
        Heat flows spontaneously from a warmer to colder object
        
        Heat gained by an object = (+)
        
        Heat lost by an object = (-)
        
        Table of Specific Heats
    - - Calorimeter
        
        To determine heats of reaction by measuring the change in temperature they cause in their surroundings.
      - Bomb Calorimeter
        
        To determine heats of combustion.
      - Heat of Combustion
        
        Heats produced by a combustion reaction.
  - - - ΔH
        
        Value of ΔH for a reaction occurs under a standard conditions that involve moles specified by the coefficient of the equation.
    - - When equation reversed, ΔH also reversed.
        
        Formulas canceled from both sides must be for substance in identical physical states.
        
        If all coefficient are multiplied or divided by the same factor, ΔH must also be implied the same.
  - - - Diagram
        
        Consist of graphical construction that depicts the energy relationships among the alternative pathways in the same reaction.
      - Formula
        
        H = E + PV
        
        ΔH = H final - H initial = qp
      - The sum of its internal energy (E) plus the product of its pressure (P) and volume (V)
        
        Standard Heat of Combustion (ΔHc)
        
        amount of heat released when one molecule of a fuel substance is completely burned in pure oxygen gas (with all reactant and product brought to 25 degree C and 1 bar pressure).
        
        Standard Heat of Formation (ΔHf)
        
        amount of heat released absorbed or evolved when specifically one mole of the substance formed at 25 degree C and 1 bar from its elements in their standard states.
- - - - Exothermic = potential energy of the particles in the system decreases
  - - - Lattice energy is related to the charge of the ions and indirectly related to the size of the ions
      - E = q1 q2 / k r
        
        E: Lattice energy (kJ mol-1)
        q1 : charge for ion 1
        q2 : charge for ion 2
        k : constant
        r : distance between 2 ions
        
        q1 and q2 have opposite signs => the lattice energy has negative sign
    - - Electron Clouds has no specific boundary, it shows only the most probable area
      - Orbital is the term of the wave function that describe the quantum mechanical of electrons
        
        s = sharp, can hold up to 2 electrons
        
        p = principal, can hold up to 6 electrons
        
        d = diffuse, can hold up to 10 electrons
        
        f = fundamental, can hold up to 14 electrons
        
        Orbitals are groups that can be found in different electron shells. These shells vary in the number and types of orbitals they contain. Each orbital can hold up to two electrons.
        
        Ground-state electron is arrangement of electron from the lowest of an atom lists
        
        RULES
        
        . Lowest-energy orbitals fill first:
        1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d.
        
        Electrons have two spin orientations, up and down (↑ and ↓). Only two electrons can occupy an orbital, and they must have opposite spins, as per the Pauli exclusion principle, ensuring unique wave equations.
        
        Hund's rule: Electrons fill equal-energy orbitals with parallel spins until each orbital has one electron.
        
        The octet rule states that representative elements tend to gain or lose electrons to achieve the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas, like Neon.
        
        Sub-shells divide shells, vary in electron capacity, and contain orbitals, with each orbital holding a maximum of two electrons of opposite spin.
  - - - Group 1A : 1 Dot
      - Group 2A : 2 Dot
      - Group 4A : 4 Dot
      - Group 5A : 5 Dot
      - Group 6A : 6 Dot
      - Group 7A : 7 Dot
      - Group 8A : 8 Dot
      - Group 3A : 3 Dot
  - - - The octet rule states that when atoms form covalent bonds, they typically share enough electrons to attain an outer shell with eight electrons.
        
        A single bond is formed by sharing one pair of electrons.
        
        A double bond is formed by sharing two pairs of electrons.
        
        A triple bond is created by sharing three pairs of electrons.
  - - - The reactivity of metals is a measure of how easily they undergo oxidation, indicating how readily a metal can be oxidized.
        
        A dipole moment, symbolized by µ, measures a molecule's polarity magnitude. It is equal to the product of the charge (q) on either end of the molecule and the distance between these charges (r).
        
        µ = q x r
        
        Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove the outermost electron from a neutral gas-phase atom. This process is represented by a specific equation for hydrogen.
  - - - Decide which atoms are bonded together
        
        count all valence electrons. add or remove e-
        
        place two electrons in each bond
        
        complete the octet of the atoms attached to the central atom
        
        place any remaining electrons on the central atom in pairs
        
        if the central atom has less than an octet, form double bonds or triple bonds
- - - - Reduces Itself to Make the Other Reactant Oxidize
      - Acids
        
        Nonoxidizing Acids
        
        Hydrogen Ions Becomes the Oxidizing Agent
        
        Oxidizing acids
        
        Anions Become the Oxidizing Agents
      - Molecular Oxygens
        
        Oxidation of Hydrocarbon
        
        Combustion
        
        Water
        
        Carbon Dioxide
        
        Oxidation of Metal
        
        Corrosion
        
        Oxidation of Nonmetals
        
        Combustion
  - - - Oxidizes Itself to Make the Other Reactant Reduce
  - - - Step 1. Divide into half
        reactions
        
        Half Equations = The Individual Equation of Oxidation or Reduction in a Reaction
      - Step 2. Balance atoms other than H and O
      - Step 3. Balance oxygen by adding H₂O to the side that needs O
      - Step 4. Balance hydrogen by adding H+ to the side that needs H
      - Step 5. Balance
        the charge by adding electron
      - Step 6. Make the number of electron gained equal to the number electron lost, and then add the two half
        reaction.
      - Step 7. Cancel anything in the same on both sides
    - - Similar Step to Acidic from 1-7
      - Step 8. Add both side of the equation the same number of OH⁻ as there are H+
      - Step 9. Combine H+ and OH⁻ forming H₂O
      - Step 10. Cancel any H₂O possible
  - - - it's strength of an element to
        oxidize easily, and will displace one that is less easily oxidized from its compounds.
  - - - % Element =
        Mass of Element /
        Mass of Sample
        x 100
    - - Molarity (M) = Moles of Solute (n) / Volume of Solution (V)