The strong-weak dichotomy in bilingual education pertains to the balance of using both languages in the classroom. In strong bilingual education, both languages are used equally across all subjects to reinforce the minority language as a medium of instruction. Weaker forms involve less prominent use of the minority language in the curriculum.

Minority language in bilingualism, is distinguished from a dominant language according to what it's used for (its functions) and where it's used (its contexts). For example, Urdu is a minority language in Leeds (in the UK) but a dominant language in Lahore (in Pakistan).

A heritage language is the minority community's cultural language, at risk of decline in later generations. Heritage language bilingual education aims to use the minority language for identity, solidarity, and language revitalization.

Biliteracy is literacy in two (or more) languages. The word is analogous to bilingual (in Latin bi means 'having two', litteratus means 'lettered' and lingua means 'tongue').

Subtractive bilingual education leads to the loss of the first language (the second replaces the first), whereas additive bilingual education leads to competence in two languages (the second augments the first).

Children experience de facto bilingual education when they apply prior subject knowledge acquired in a language different from the current language of instruction.

A sheltered English programme is one in which school pupils with limited proficiency in the target language get instruction in English as an additional language along with other subjects taught in English,

Submersion education known as sink-or-swim, lack acknowledgment or accommodation for the special needs of second language learners.

Transitional bilingual education
is subtractive, using the first language as a temporary medium for gaining proficiency in the (dominant) second language; whereas maintenance bilingual education is additive, aiming to complement and strengthen, rather than replace, the (minority) first language.

Maintenance bilingual education nvolves preserving the non-dominant language, contrasting with submersion and transitional models that aim for linguistic assimilation.

Immersion In immersion bilingual education, learners are immersed in the second language. One-way immersion involves a 1:1 language ratio, while two-way immersion (TWI) has users of both languages studying content together, with the language of instruction varying by subject.

Community language teaching is an approach to heritage language education adopted incountries in which the home languages of ethnic minorities are taught and used as languages of instruction in schools and community centres.

Heritage language programmes share the assumption that there is educational value in teaching students in and about the historic language(s) of their community.

indicates a good education, it's recognized that resistance to bilingual schooling is not exclusive to the U.S., seen in examples in China and many primary schools globally.

Elite and folk bilingualism distinguish between those becoming bilingual by choice for prestige (elite) and those out of necessity for survival (folk).

Bilingual and multilingual programs, as discussed, encompass linguistic, learning, political, and economic dimensions. Understanding them requires considering language, content, and context, especially in global and local contexts, organized around three primary orientations: language as a problem, language as a right, and language as a resource.

Effective bilingual/multilingual programs set ambitious goals, emphasizing subject mastery and cultural integration, with success hinging on tailored practices, active stakeholder involvement, and school autonomy.

Modality refers to the diverse and integrated forms of expression, such as sound, video, image, color, movement, and written language, combined in both print and digital formats,

Mobilityrefers to the impact of migration on students, as individuals bring their languages and linguistic practices with them, creating challenges for host schools, especially when there is a mismatch between the languages used by the students and the school.

Translanguaging is the practice of multilingual individuals using various linguistic elements, including switching or meshing between languages, varieties, and modalities, to share meaning, challenging the traditional approach of rigidly separating languages.

ROLES FOR APPLIED LINGUISTS : training educators, developing culturally sensitive curricula, and advocating for language pluralism.