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1. General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech., 2. The…
1. General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech.
The NOUN
is
the central lexical unit of language
. It is the main nominative unit of speech.
the noun can be characterised by three criteria:
SEMANTIC
(the meaning)
The noun possesses the
grammatical meaning of thingness, substantiality
. Nouns fall into several
subclasses
:
1) according to
the type of nomination
they may be
proper and common
.
2) according to
the form of existence
they may be
animate and inanimate
. Animate nouns in their turn fall into human and non-human.
This set of subclasses
cannot be put together into one table
because of
the different principles of classification
.
3) according to their
quantitative structure
nouns can be
countable and uncountable
.
MORPHOLOGICAL
(the form and grammatical categories)
The noun has morphological
categories of number and case
. Some scholars admit the existence of the category of gender.
1)
simple
(life,cat)
2)
derived
(stem + affix, affix + stem – friendless,happiness)
3)
compound
(stem+ stem – lunchtime, firefighter)
4)
composite
(the Hague)
SYNTACTICAL
(functions, distribution)
The noun can be used in the sentence
in all syntactic functions
but
predicate
. That is why practically all parts of speech but the verb can act as noun determiners.
!!!
The most common noun determiners are considered to be
articles, pronouns, numerals, adjectives and nouns
themselves in the common and genitive case.
2. The category of case. The Common and the Genitive cases. Different interpretations of the ‘s’ format. Views on the number of cases in English.
CASE
expresses
the relation of a word to another word in the word-group or sentence
(his cat's bed).
The case category in English is realized through
the OPPOSITION
: The Common Case :: The Possessive Case (cat :: cat’s).
Modern linguistics: “possessive case" => “genitive case”
.
WHY?
Because the meanings rendered by the “`s” sign are NOT only those of possession.
The scope of meanings
rendered by the Genitive Case is the following:
a) Possessive Genitive : Mary’s father – Mary has a father,
b) Subjective Genitive: The doctor’s arrival – The doctor has arrived,
c) Objective Genitive : The man’s release – The man was released,
d) Adverbial Genitive : Two hour’s work – X worked for two hours,
e) Equation Genitive : a mile’s distance – the distance is a mile,
f) Genitive of destination: children’s books – books for children,
g) Mixed Group: yesterday’s paper
Different scholars stick to a different number of cases.
1.
There are two cases
. The Common one and The Genitive;
2.There are
NO CASES
at all, the form `s is optional because the same relations may be expressed by the ‘of-phrase’: the doctor’s arrival – the arrival of the doctor;
3.There are
three cases
:
the Nominative, the Genitive, the Objective
due to the existence of objective pronouns me, him, whom;
4.
Case Grammar
. Ch.Fillmore introduced syntactic-semantic classification of cases. They show relations in the so-called deep structure of the sentence. According to him, verbs may stand to different relations to nouns. There are 6 cases:
1) Agentive Case (A) John opened the door;
2) Instrumental case (I) The key opened the door; John used the key to open the door;
3) Dative Case (D) John believed that he would win (the case of the animate being affected by the state of action identified by the verb);
4) Factitive Case (F) The key was damaged ( the result of the action or state identified by the verb);
5) Locative Case (L) Chicago is windy;
6) Objective case (O) John stole the book.
in WRITTEN FORM with
an apostrophe
WHY?
Because it makes possible disengagement of –`s form from the noun to which it properly belongs (Children’s likes and dislikes can change quickly).
7. The category of voice. Different views on the number and kinds of voices in English.
the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction
Active Voice :: Passive Voice
the category of voice reflects the objective relations between the action itself and the subject or object of the action
OPPOSITION
: active :: passive
VERBS
Verbs used only transitively: to mark, to raise;
2.Verbs with the main transitive meaning: to see, to make, to build;
Verbs of intransitive meaning and secondary transitive meaning. A lot of intransitive verbs may develop a secondary transitive meaning: They laughed me into agreement; He danced the girl out of the room;
4.Verbs of a double nature, neither of the meanings are the leading one, the verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively: to drive home - to drive a car;
5.Verbs that are never used in the Passive Voice: to seem, to become;
Verbs that realize their passive meaning only in special contexts: to live, to sleep, to sit, to walk, to jump.
VOICE:
"Middle Voice"
- the verbs primarily transitive may develop an intransitive middle meaning: That adds a lot; The door opened; The book sells easily; The dress washes well.
"Reflexive Voice"
: He dressed; He washed - the subject is both the agent and the recipient of the action at the same time. It is always possible to use a reflexive pronoun in this case: He washed himself.
"Reciprocal voice”
: They met; They kissed - it is always possible to use a reciprocal pronoun here: They kissed each other.
3. The category of number. Different meanings of the singular and plural forms. Singularia and Pluralia Tantum.
The grammatical category of number = the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity.
The number category is realized through the opposition of two form-classes: the plural form :: the singular form
.
The category of number in English is restricted in its realization because of the dependent implicit grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness.
The number category is realized only within subclass of countable nouns.
the PLURAL FORM
may denote:
a)
the existence of several objects
(cats);
b)
the inner discreteness
(pluralia tantum, jeans).
the SINGULAR FORM
may denote:
a)
oneness
(individual separate object – a cat);
b)
generalization
(the meaning of the whole class – The cat is a domestic animal);
c)
indiscreteness or uncountableness
(money, milk).
all nouns may be subdivided into three groups:
1) The nouns in which
the opposition of explicit discreteness/indiscreteness is expressed
: cat::cats;
2) The nouns in which
this opposition is NOT expressed explicitly
but is revealed by
syntactical and lexical correlation in the context
. There are two groups here:
a)
Singularia Tantum (absolute singular)
followed by a singular verb
proper names, abstract nouns, material nouns, collective nouns, names of sciences, names of diseases, games
b)
Pluralia Tantum (absolute plural)
followed by a plural verb objects consisting of several parts collective nouns
3)
The nouns with homogenous number forms
. The number opposition here is not expressed formally but is revealed only lexically and syntactically in the context: e.g. Look! A sheep is eating grass. Look! The sheep are eating grass.
8. The category of aspect. Aspect opposition and aspect markers.
The category of aspect is
a linguistic representation of the objective category of Manner of Action
.
It is realized through
the opposition Continuous::Non-Continuous (Progressive::Non-Progressive)
The realization of the category of aspect
is closely connected with the lexical meaning of verbs
(refer to a state of affairs, rather than to an action, event or process. ).
‘non-progressive’ verbs (stative verbs) are think, understand, know, hate, love, see, taste, feel, possess, own, etc.
‘progressive' verbs => the progressive aspect
The Continuous form has at least two semantic features - 1)
duration
(the action is always in progress) and 2)
definiteness
(the action is always limited to a definite point or period of time). In other words,
the purpose of the Continuous form is to serve as a frame which makes the process of the action more concrete and isolated
.
6. The category of tense. Tense oppositions. Different views on the tense system in English. Absolute and relative tense forms.
The tense category is realized through the oppositions: *
the past tense :: the present tense
,
the future tense :: non future forms*
.
The category of tense is a verbal category that reflects the objective category of time
(it relates
the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of the utterance
).
Referential category
(The category of tense is a verbal category that reflects the objective category of time expresses the relations between the time of the action and the time of the utterance)
OPPOSITION:
I)
Tense oppositions Number of tenses:
2) H. Sweet, O. Jespersen, R. Quirk et al. doubt the existence of future tenses “shall/will + infinitive” their original modal meaning (obligation and volition, respectively).Present :: Preterite (Past) -- work :: worked
1) 3 tenses (present, past, future)
II)
Tense oppositions
Structural approach to English grammar admits
the binary opposition of the Past
(the strong member, marked with the - ed inflection) :: the Non-Past (the weak, unmarked member) with the Future being excluded Future-in-the-Past forms express both the future and the past time
III)
Complex oppositions
Future I :: Future II :: Past :: Non-Past ::
4. The grammatical category of gender in Modern English.
There is NO gender concord
, and the reference of the pronouns he, she, it is very largely determined by what is sometimes referred to as ‘natural’ gender for English, it depends upon the classification of persons and objects as male, female or inanimate.
Thus,
the recognition of gender
as a grammatical category
is logically independent
of any particular semantic association.
the grammatical category of GENDER
Other scholars (M.Blokh, John Lyons) admit the existence of the category of gender.
Prof.Blokh states that the existence of the category of gender in Modern English
can be proved by the correlation of nouns with personal pronouns of the third person
(he, she, it).
1)
masculine
(denoting persons males)
2)
feminine
(denoting persons females)
3)
neuter
(denoting non-persons)
Nouns have NO category of gender in Modern English (B.Ilyish, F.Palmer, and E.Morokhovskaya).
The difference between actor and actress -- NO gender,
it's lexica difference
. (It's an objective biological category, not the category of gender.)
5. General characteristics of the verb as a part of speech. Classifications of English verbs in accordance with different principles.
MAIN FUNCTIONS:
1) connection between situation in the utterance and reality; 2) possesses quite a lot of grammatical categories.
FEATURES
1)
SEMANTIC features
the grammatical meaning of verbiality
(the ability to denote a process developing in time) It's for verbs which: 1) denote processes, and 2) denote states, forms of existence, evaluations, etc.
2)
MORPHOLOGICAL features
The verb possesses the following grammatical categories:
tense, aspect, voice, mood, person, number, finitude and phase
.
Some categories have
only synthetical forms
(person, number), others -
only analytical
(voice). There are also categories expressed by
BOTH synthetical and analytical
forms (mood, tense, aspect).
3)
SENTACTIC features
The most universal syntactic feature of verbs is
the ability to be modified by adverbs
. The second important syntactic criterion is
the ability of the verb to perform the syntactic function of the predicate
(BUT only finite forms can perform this function while non-finite forms can be used in any function but predicate). 3) any verb in the form of the infinitive can be combined with a modal verb.
different principles of classification
1)
MORPHOLOGICAL
According to the way of forming past tenses
1)
regular
2)
irregular
2+3)
SYNTACTICAL AND FUNCTIONAL
the nature of predication (primary and secondary)
1)
finite
2)
non-finite
1) Infinitives (He decided to attend the interview.)
2) The Participle: (Verbal Adjective): I saw a student jumping.
3) The Gerund: (Verbal Noun): Teaching is my profession.
4)
LEXICAL-MORPHOLOGICAL
the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity
1)
transitive
(are characterized by having or containing a direct object)
2)
intransitive
(are characterized by not having or containing a direct object (to laugh, to dance, let, etc.))
the implicit grammatical meaning of stativeness/non-stativeness
1)
stative
(express a static situation, i.e. a situation in which the entity is at rest )
2)
dynamic
(express a situation in which the entity is engaged in some or other activity)
the implicit grammatical meaning of terminativeness/non-terminativeness
1)
terminative
(The Verb bounded (TERMINATIVE) catch, (fall, die, subdue, bend, destroy) of double lexical nature (wonder, think))
2)
durative
(unbounded (NON TERMINATIVE or durative): be, exist, know, believe)
according to their functional significance
1)
full nominative value (NOTIONAL verbs)
2)
partial nominative value (semi-notional or FUNCTIONAL verbs)