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Topic 5: Motive Perspective, Congruence between implicit and explicit…
Topic 5: Motive Perspective
Needs
Definitions
Henry Murray
internal directional force
that determines
how people seek out and respond to objects or situations
in environment
internal state that is
less than satisfactory
and lacks key elements for well-being
Characteristics
can be biological (visceral) or psychological (viscerogenic)
Biological
need becomes more intense over time (Eg. More hungry)
person acts to satisfy need and need is reduced (Eg. get food)
must be satisfied repeatedly over time
:arrow_up: need strength leads to :arrow_up: behavioural intensity
Behavioural
Intensity
Vigour, enthusiasm, thoroughness
Prioritising
Directive
Specificity
Eg. thirsty for :droplet: or :couple:
pointing to
specific
classes of goal objects or events
Directionality
creates movement
towards
object or
away
from it
Eg. Need for safety => move away from :snake: and move towards trusted adult :woman:
Motives
clusters of cognitions with affective overtones, organised around preferred experiences and goals
"cognitions" -- appear in thoughts and precognitions
"preferred experiences..." -- relate to desired/undesired goals
"affective overtones" -- emotionally toned
subjective experience
Eg. need for food occurs in bodily tissues and not sensed directly
Results in motivational state of hunger that is subjectively experienced
psychological
needs and motives are interchangeable
Press
external events that influence motives
Examples
initially full but feeling hungry again after seeing a :pizza:
watching someone receive an honour which may lead to :arrow_up: motive for recognition
Thema
person's subjective interpretation, perception or response to press
construal of press
Murray's System of Needs
first to develop view of personality understood through needs and motives
Beliefs
universal system of needs
dispositional differences in baseline levels of needs
interact with temporary fluctuations in needs due to prioritising
differing centrality of needs as well
Methods
Thematic Apperception Test
Assumptions
2 types of needs
Manifest needs
reflected in overt behaviour (explicit)
Latent needs
not reflected in overt behaviour (implicit)
Apperception
Eg. telling a story about :hamburger: when ur hungry
latent needs are projected onto fantasies
:one: Presented with an ambiguous picture
:two: Tell a detailed story from the picture
character thoughts and feelings
Latent needs observed from themes in story
relationship between characters
Dispositional
tendencies can be observed from story themes over multiple pictures
emotionally evocative
and has
psychodynamic properties
Studies on validity
NAch
manipulated by giving participants success or failure
failure should create achievement deficit and thus :arrow_up: NAch
Results
failure => :arrow_up: achievement imagery
success in another group also led to :arrow_up: achievement imagery
motives can be aroused by circumstances relevant to motives (does not need to be just deprivation)
Hunger
participants deprived of food for varying amts of time
:arrow_up: hunger related to :arrow_up: in food-related TAT imagery
administered by doctor to individual
Picture Story Exercise (PSE)
used TAT pictures but some variations used other pictures
Standardised setting, instructions, and scoring conventions
administered to groups
ambiguous pictures featuring daily occurrences and events
Limitations
:arrow_down: Internal Consistency
possibly from varying content of PSE pictures
may :arrow_down: internal consistency but :arrow_up: validity
:arrow_down: Test-Retest Reliability
implicit pressure to avoid repetition over consecutive stories
High time and effort costs for scoring
Self-Reports
correlate poorly with PSEs as they measure
self-attributed motives
McClelland's 3 Big Motives
Need for Achievement
desire to do things well
and
take pleasure in overcoming obstacles
PSE themes
performing well in something
reaching goals & overcoming obstacles
:heavy_plus_sign: feelings about success and :heavy_minus_sign: feelings about failure
NAch Effects
:arrow_up: persistence in face of failure
:arrow_up: task and educational performance
Culture and economic growth
literature studied for ach. imagery and compared with economic growth
UK cultural shifts in NAch predicted economic outcomes
not ideal with :arrow_down: control over outcomes
lower effectiveness in US presidents
Task Preferences
Low :arrow_down: NAch
prefer very easy or difficult tasks
Hard task => able to accept failure
Hard task => chance of getting lucky and succeed
Easy task => low pressure to achieve
High :arrow_up: NAch
prefer tasks of
moderate
difficulty
manipulated test item
difficulty
and
diagnosticity
(how much they reveal abt ability)
People with high NAch
strong preference for diagnostic items
difficulty had no effect
may provide most information about their ability
High NAch in women expressed differently depending on goals and views
Need for Power
to have
impact
on others
to have
prestige
to feel
strong
compared to others
PSE Themes
forceful vigorous actions
(esp. those that can evoke strong emotional reactions in others)
concern about status, position, self-image, authority
NPow Effects
Careers
less likely to make concessions in negotiations
:arrow_up: effectiveness in managing others
High NPow US presidents more effective
unbothered by lack of control in political situations
adjust behaviours and focus on maintaining influence
seek positions of power and influence
:womens: with high NPow
more power-related job satisfactions and dissatisfactions
:arrow_up: career development when in power-relevant jobs
Behaviours
surround themselves with symbols of power
Eg. Rolex :watch: or Lamborghini :racing_car:
image-oriented thoughts and behaviours
want to be viewed as authoritative and influential
Relationships
frustrated by
high-dominance
expressions
rewarded by
low-dominance expressions
angry when people do not respond well to efforts to exert influence
:mens: with high NPow
more likely to abuse partners in arguments
prefer a dependent woman that allows man to feel superior
Biological
Stress
People with :arrow_down: NPow have
larger
increase in cortisol after
success
stress occurs when outcome not what one is motivated for
People with :arrow_up: NPow have
larger
increase in cortisol after
failure
Testosterone :male_sign:
small link between NPow and baseline Tt
Males with :arrow_up: NPow have larger Tt
increase
after
success
Men with :arrow_up: NPow have larger Tt
decrease
after
failure
Estradiol :female_sign:
similar to Tt in men
:arrow_up: correlation between NPow and estradiol in women not on oral contraception
Sense of Responsibility
acquired during socialisation
:arrow_down: sense => antisocial decisions
problematic ways of influencing others
Eg. aggression, sexual exploitation, drug & alcohol use
:arrow_up: sense => prosocial decisions
conscientious pursuit of prestige where power is expressed in socially desirable ways
Alcohol Abuse :wine_glass:
drinking can lead to temporary feelings of power
people with :arrow_up: NPow can unconsciously turn to drinking
therapies that encourage other ways to satisfy NPow more effective than traditional therapies
Need for Affiliation
spend time with others and form social ties
PSE Themes
acceptance concerns
active attempts to establish and maintain positive relationships
NAffil Effects
Desires
desire to be perceived as agreeable
nervous when interpersonal skills judged
desire interaction when alone
prefer warm :coffee: interaction partners instead of reserved ones
sensitive to angry :angry: expressions
Behaviour
engage in
active initiation
of social interactions
more likely to be viewed as leaders
more likely to make concessions in negotiations
Relationships
partners with similar NAffil levels tend to have :arrow_up: relationship satisfaction
Positive relationship more satisfying for people with high NAffil
Human motivation theory
Need for Intimacy
desire for warm, close and communicative exchanges with others, to feel close to another
Compared to Affiliation
correlated with NAffil (r= 0.58)
more emphasis on positive, affirmative aspects of relationships
more emphasis on closeness and open sharing than NAffil
"being" orientation opposed to "doing" orientation of NAffil
Effects
Behaviours
:arrow_up: Listening
possibly arises from concern over partner's wellbeing
more one-to-one exchanges with :arrow_up: self disclosure (hopes, fears, fantasies)
:arrow_up: Eye contact, laughing and smiling
Less domination in social interactions (opposite of NPow)
Perceive life through such interactions
Tendency to report relationships in transcendent memories
does not coexist well with NPow
individuals high in NPow & NInt are often porrly adjusted
:arrow_up: intimacy motives in narrative fantasies at 30
:arrow_up: job and marriage satisfaction
Need Patterns
Inhibited Power Motive
Components
:arrow_up: NPow
able to make tough decisions without fearing being disliked
:arrow_up: self-control
desire to follow protocol and adhere to business framework
ability to inhibit NPow expression
:arrow_down: NAffil
desire to influence others
Effects
Associated with non-technical managerial success
not associated with engineering managers as managerial skill depends on technical skill
:arrow_up: Persuasion
:arrow_up: in verbal fluency
effective usage of nonverbal cues (eg. hand gestures)
helpful in mobilising others
conducive to starting wars
War predicted by :arrow_up: IPM imagery in politician statements a year before
vice versa (NAffl > NPow) predicts avoidance of war
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
combinations and patterns of several needs
Incentive Value
degree to which a specific behaviour satisfies a need
personalised weighting of relevancy of action to need
Examples
:arrow_up: NAffil
Loves music => goes to clubs and concerts
Loves sport => goes to ball games with friends
conscious
choice of actions within a specific domain
needs thought of as unconsciously influencing general need-relevant actions
Motive Types
Approach and Avoidance Motives
Examples
NAch
Avoidance motive
tendency to feel shame in failure
avoid failure
succeeding
never try
Approach motive
capacity to feel pride in success
desire to succeed
NAffil
Approach motive => desire to be with others
Avoidance motive => avoid being alone
Studies
Early studies
based on Atkinson's theory of achievement behaviour
clearer predictions for individuals high in one motive and low in the other
unclear for individuals high or low in both motives
confounded approach and avoidance motives as participants differed on approach and avoidance motives
Elliot & McGregor
studied NAch in context of exam revision
avoidance motive
:arrow_up: Memorisation
More trouble planning study time effectively
:arrow_down: emotional well-being and performance satisfaction
approach motive
thoughtful elaboration of course material
theorised that achievement can reflect both motives
centrality of motive is crucial
Familiarity
people with high avoidance motives feel discomfort imagining approach outcomes
Eg. :arrow_up: fear of failure (avoidance) feel stressed imaging success (approach)
Differing Effects
Commitment / Intimacy
Approach-based commitment
:arrow_up: relationship satisfaction 6 and 13 months later
Avoidance-based
commitment
:arrow_down: relationship satisfaction
Eg. avoiding breakup
Implicit & Explicit Motives
Explicit Motives
related to desire for
specific action goals
predict
motive-relevant
responses in specific situations and to specific goals
Eg. Explicit Achievement Motive
influences decisions people make while seeking information about their skills (continuing task or not)
relates to general memories related to self-concept
closer to
incentives
Implicit Motives
closer to
motives
primitive and automatic
good predictor of frequency of reporting motive-relevant feelings
Eg. Implicit Achievement
acts as an energiser that boosts effort when person falls behind
relates to memories of specific events
Motives & Five Factors
explicit motives relate moderately to five factors
implicit motives relate poorly to five-factor model
Winter's Integration
motives are fundamental desires
and
traits channel expression
of these desires
interaction of motives and traits produces behaviour
traits may represent patterns of incentive preferences
Study Evidence
found that :arrow_up: NInt has different effects on introverts and extroverts
introverts with :arrow_up: NInt face problems as inner-directed orientation can interfere with rs
Narratives
life story that people compose and live out over time
coherent narrative across time crucial to personal identity
Criticisms
arbitrary choice of qualities
originally developed from Murray's intuition
omits NInt
studies focus on singular motives rather than patterns of several motives
Congruence between implicit and explicit motives
Congruence => optimal well-being
Incongruence
related to unhealthy eating
:arrow_up: stress => adverse effects on well-being
