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Origins and Manufacture of Addictive Drugs - Coggle Diagram
Origins and Manufacture
of Addictive Drugs
Drug Classification
classified as illicit or licit
classified by effects on the central nervous system.
depressants: slow down the CNS
stimulants: speed up the CNS
hallucinogens: alter sensory perceptions (psychotogenic) by interfering with CNS signalling
others: do not fit neatly into other categories, fall into several categories, different experiences between individuals
Stimulants
tobacco (nicotine)
smoked by indigenous people across the americas
1492:
discovered by christopher columbus. scouts reported indigenous people smoking "half-burned wood in their hands"
rodrigo de jerez: first european smoker > introduced tobacco to ayamonte, spain.
1523:
documentation of a tobacco merchant in lisbon > trade established in 30 years.
1604:
stuart king james 1 > "harmful to the brain, dangerous to the lungs." english introduced heavy tariffs on imports.
1609:
commercial production in jamestown, virginia.
until 1883, tobacco excise tax accoutned for 1/3 of internal revenue collected by the us government.
1962:
first causal link between smoking, lung cancer, bronchitis, and cardiovascular disease was published.
interventions to quit smoking yield substantial long-term profits resulting from reduced healthcare expenditure and more productive economic activity
cocaine
derived from the leaves of the coca plant > acts as an 'anti-herbivore' chemical
grows naturally in abundance in south america
coca leaves consumed by indigenous groups of south america
1000BC:
mummies found in northern chile showed the presence of cocaine.
6000BC:
evidence of coca leaf production and distribution in nanchoc valley, peru
tea infusions or chewed leaves were consumed by the indigenous people of south America
practice still legal in Peru and bolivia
widely practised by indigenous groups in other south American countries despite prohibition
1500s:
spanish conquistadors in south America dismissed coca leaf consumption > later commercialised and taxed its distribution when they discovered that the enslaved indigenous population worked harder under its influence
1600s:
introduced to spain
1858:
gained popularity following research published by paolo mantegazza, an italian neurologist, which highlighted the cognitive enhancing effects of coca lead infusions.
1886:
us state of georgia introduced alcohol prohibitio > john pemberton, us pharmacist, developed a non-alcoholic recipe with sweet syrup and coca infusion.
1904:
cocaine is extracted from coca-cola following the prohibition of cocaine.
1955:
cocaine alkaloid first isolated by german chemist, friedrich gaedcke
1960:
albert niemann's phd > published a better extraction process, described its local anesthetic effects and named it cocaine.
cocaine hydrochloride:
injected, snorted, or taken orally
freebase cocaine:
can be smoked, giving this form a faster high
crack cocaine:
it crackles when smoked, giving it its name, potentially addictive
amphetamine
derived from the plant ephedra which grows throughout the world.
long been used in chinese medicine for the treatment of asthma, hay fever, and colds.
1885:
japanese chemist nagai nagayoshi, extracted the ephedrine from ephedra > used as a decongestant to stop asthma attacks.
1887:
first synthesised by roman chemist lazar edeleanu, in an attempt to make a synthetic ephedrine.
named phenyl isopropyl-amine because the starting compound was phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) rather than plant-derived ephedrine.
amphetamine produced from P2P is stronger than that derived room ephedrine.
1920s:
shortage of ephedrine due to a war in china.
1927:
the allergist, gordon alles, resynthesised amphetiamine
1933:
smith, kline, and french released amphetiamine in an inhaler under the trade name benzedrine, as a decongestant and for asthma.
1930s/40s:
benzedrine and amphetamine tablets were widely used in WW2 to increase alertness. it became increasingly clear that the performcance-enhancing effects were largely in the minds of the users, and in actuality, their performance was impaired. this + the addictive properties led amphetamine to be used less as the war continued.
1960s:
epidemic of amphetamine use.
gave rise to moral panic, raising the problem of drug addiction up the political agenda.
benzedrine inhalers were banned and regulation of prescription amphetamine came into force in both the us and uk.
us military still used amphetamine with its personnel in vietnam
methamphetamine
1885:
nagai nagayoshi extracted ephedrine from ephedra. further research into chemical manipulation of ephedrine led to the creation of meth powder.
1919:
akira ogata developed crystal form. similar chemical structure to amphetamine with the addition of the methyl group.
during
1939-1945
: during WW2 germany manufactured and distributed more than 35 million tablets of meth.
contributed to the blitzkrieg (rapid invasion of europe)
1941:
production halted following recognition of its dangerous addictive potential.
japanese provided meth throughout the war, particularly to kamikaze pilots.
civilian meth abuse multiplied at the end of the war, when military supplies were opened for sale to the public.
the addition of the "methyl" group to methamphetamine allows it to be more readily absorbed into the CNA compared to amphetamine
Depressants
alcohol
can be made by leaving fruit in a container for a period of time.
paleolithic humans may have consumed alcohol but there is little direct evidence.
2010 worldwide consumption of alcohol was 6.2 litres per 15+yo person (13.5g per person per day)
the higher the economic wealth of a country, the higher the consumption: highest in europe, russia, australia, and canada.
unrecorded (ie. home-brew) liquor accounts for almost 25% of worldwide consumption.
3.3 million deaths worldwide are attributed to alcohol consumption
7000-5800BC: first direct evidence of alcohol production
jiahu, china > archeological site (neolithic era)
pots were found to contain the residue of an alcoholic liquid made from fermented rice, honey, and hawthorn.
chateu jiahu: reverse engineered from molecular archeology
4100BC: areni-1 cave, armenia
one of the earliest known sites of wine production.
the press sits inside the cave and is slanted downwards towards the mouth of a large jar inserted in the platform's edge to catch the crushed grape juice
this type of wine press was common throughout the mediterranean until ~1900.
morphine
1803:
morphine was isolated by the german pharmacist, friedrich sertürner.
added morphine crystals to food to kill unwanted rats and dogs.
observed that morphine evoked sleep and ultimately death.
he suffered from gout in his later life and quelled his pain with his own morphine.
alkaloid morphine is generally 8-14% of the dry weight of opium.
sertüner's morphine extraction method is still used in illicit labs today.
opium
derived from the sap produced by the opium poppy.
a farmer makes an incision to damage plant tissue, then sap is collected and dried.
historically, opium was the end product, but more recently, opium is sold to refiners who convert it into morphine or heroin.
selective breeding has yielded an opium poppy that has substantially higher concentrations of opioids than the wild variant.
10,000-2000BC: used broadly throughout europe, asia, the middle east, and north africa
4200BC: archeological sites of opium buried in a ritual or sacred context
brittany, france: ceramic bowls found in a sacred site
southern spain: bags of opium capsules were found in a burial site.
1500BC: the ebers papyrus
found between the legs of a mummy in a tomb near luxor, egypt.
describes a mixture of opium and another material that was found to be effective in calming crying children.
in antiquity, children in egypt, india, and europe were soothed with opium.
1332-1323BC: the cultivation and trade of opium were in full operation during the reign of king tutankhamun
700BC: opiums recreational use is described in homer's 'the odyssey'
laudanum
1493-1541:
paracelsus, a swiss-german occultist discovered that opium could be better dissolved into a solution of alcohol, rather than water.
although an effective analgesic, the compound was largely ignored.
1624-1689:
thomas sydenham, english physician, produced and promoted his own laudanum recipe > cure for a range of medical conditions.
1837-1901:
laudanum remains available by prescription, although therapeautic applications are generally restricted to pain relief and alleviating withdrawal symptoms in babies born to heroin or opiate-addicted mothers.
1910 onwards:
increasingly restrictive laws were established that regulated the production and sale of addictive compounds, including laudanum
codeine
alkaloiud present in opium at a concentration of about 1-3%.
1821:
pierre robiquet (french chemist) isolated codein from morphine using o-methylation.
used as an analgesic, antitussive (coughing), antidiarrheal, antihypertensive, antianxiety, sedative, for the suppression of premature labour contractions and heart attack.
it does have addictive potential but is less potent than morphine or heroin
heroin
1874:
diacetylmorphine, first synthesised by english chemist, charles wright.
accidentally boiled morphine and acetic acid over a stove for several hours > this process of acetylation intriduced an acetyl group into the compound.
the modern technique entails a complicated series of steps in a good laboratory.
1898:
felix hoffman, german scientist, worked at bayer and discovered aspirin by subjecting salicylic acid to the acetylation process that wright had applied to morphine.
hoffman replicated this procedure and named the resulting diacetylmorphine, heroin, in reference to its heroic effects.
bayer marketed heroin as an effective sedative for coughs, like morphine, but without the addictive potential > sales rocketed and dependence followed.
1913:
bayer ceased production with the introduction of widespread legislation to control the production and sale of such compounds
Others
MDMA
3, 4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine
often classed with the amphetamines and hallucinogens.
there are different experiences across individuals, hence being classified as "other"
primary precursor is safrole, extracted from the sassafras tree.
1912:
first synthesised by anton köllisch > trying to develop a haemostatic drug to stop bleeding.
1927: max oberlin reports mdma's similarity to ephedrine
1953:
us military commissions studies with mdma.
1958:
independent synthesis by yutaka kasuya
1970:
first report of recreational mdma use in the us.
1970s:
alexander shulgin synthesises mdma and publishes its mood enhancing effects and therapeutic benefit.
1980s:
mdma becomes increasingly popular in rave culture.
1985:
prohibition is introduced.
2010s:
mdma use decreasing due to scarcity of precursor chemical
cannabis
believed to have originated nw of the himalayas
two varieties: sativa (high psychotomimetic effect), indica (low psychotimimetic effect)
indigenous populations made us of the plants for intoxication, clothes, nets, rope, and string
1000BC:
evidence of cannabis consumption.
burial site in turpan, nw canada > possessed 789g of cannabis on his person.
site is especially important because it is the earliest recorded site in which researchers were able to conclusively demonstrate the presence of THC.
texts refer to the medicinal/intoxicant/spiritual effects.
2700BC:
Chinese herbal medicine in pên-ts-ao ching
2000BC:
religious/philosophical text in the hindu vegas
later references to cannabis across the ancient world following the trade routes of the steppe highway/silk road.
cannabinoids are the main psychoactive component.
phytocannabinoids: found in plants
synthetic cannabinoids: man-made from other components.
~85 phytocannabinoids have been isolated from the cannabis plant.
most research on 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD).
THC: primary psychoactive intoxicant as indicated by the level of THC dose being associated with the subjectively reported drug effect.
difference forms have different THC concentrations: lead (5%), flowers-buds (12%), resin-hashish (20%), oils-hash oil (60%).
initial evidence that CBS has little psychoactive effect, but it may reduce the psychotomimetic effect of THC.
medicinal cannabis
prohibited in australia, but there are differences in each state.
can be legally used as a therapeutic in some cases and grown for medical/research use.
efficacy for treating: pain, muscle spasticity, pediatric epilepsy, nausea/vomiting, etc.
synthetic cannabis
john william huffman, organic chemist.
synthesised JWH-018
prof. raphael mechoulam, hebrew university.
developed HU-210
pfizer developed CP 47,497
these synthetic cannabinoids are considered designer drugs
mixed herbs infused with synthetic cannabinoids.