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U57 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - The PM Winston Churchill was called to lead the nation in the crisis of the war. He played a key role in Allied leadership, working closely with F. D. Roosevelt & Staling to coordinate the war effort. He was an eloquent spokesman and managed to persuade the nation that it would still win.
        
        Germany & Japan would make two serious mistakes that cost them the war: Germany attacked the Soviet Union and Japan the US (Pearl Harbour). By forcing into battle against 2 of the most powerful nations, the war turned from an European to a global conflict, and Britain could not possibly have defeated Germany without their help.
        
        In 1944, the war came to an end in Europe after the American invasion of Normandy on the D-Day. However, Japan refused to surrender, so in 1945 US president Truman decided to drop 2 atomic bombs, in Hiroshima & Nagasaki to rapidly end the war.
        
        the Commonwealth
        
        Regarding its colonies, many of them demanded independence and the former British Empire was turned into the Commonwealth in 1949, a (voluntary) association of independent states that shared values & historical ties with the British crown.
        
        of Nations (1949)
  - - - In 1931 a unity or coalition government was formed with Ramsay MacDonald (from the Labor Party) as PM, including members from the Liberal & Conservative Party to address the crisis. They proposed to raise taxes, cut public spending & cut unemployment benefits, as well as initiating public works programmes to encourage roads & housing construction. By 1938 (before WWII), the economy & unemployment rates had partially recovered.
  - - - Although Britain's human losses and territory destruction from the War were far less than those of France, the British economy was in depression/crisis, even at a time of relative prosperity for the rest of the world. Its economy had been restructured to support the war effort, with industries redirected to manufacturing war materials, and they faced a difficult transition back to a peacetime economy, suffering from a huge rise in unemployment, taxes & inflation in the 1st half of the 1920s. Also, the government had borrowed heavily to finance the war, leading to increased public debt which they had to pay by selling their international markets. The coal industry was almost bankrupt as their main income resource, coal, began to fall due to the appearance of new energies: oil & electricity.
        
        By the late 1920s, the economy had stabilised, but the overall situation was disappointing: Britain had fallen behind the US as the leading industrial power. Also, there was a strong economic disparity: the south of England & the Midlands being fairly prosperous, while the the industrial north of England had high rates of unemployment & poverty.
    - - During the war, the UK had a coalition government formed by both the Liberal and Conservative parties, whose unity government was seen as necessary to maintain political stability during the conflict and face the challenges of the war. In the days after the end of the War, new elections were called with an extended suffrage, so all men over 21 & (more significantly) women over 30 could vote.
        
        The war meant a disaster for the Liberal Party (criticized for its handling of the war), as it was divided and taken over by the Labour Party (supporting the interests of the working class & identified with socialism), which emerged from old trade unions & small social organizations, so it became one of the major political parties in the UK.
        
        Irish independence
        
        Another problem for Lloyd George's government was the Irish question. In April 1916, the Irish Nationalist Movement & the Irish republicans (who sought to establish an independent Irish Republic) had become more radical and carried out a campaign of terrorist attacks called the Easter Rising. However, this rebellion was quickly suppressed & the leaders executed by British forces as they were badly organized, but it had a significant impact as it led to increased support for independence.
        
        The devastating outcome of WWI created a unique opportunity for the Irish independence movement. In 1922, the government (weakened after the war) decided to accept the independence of Ireland but not the Ulster, so Ireland was divided. The 6 northern counties, which were mainly protestant, were maintained as part of the UK (now called Ulster) whereas the 26 Catholic counties became the Republic of Ireland (named Eire).
        
        (1922)
  - - - The 1920s is also known as the Jazz Age (term coined by Fitzgerald), as jazz music & dancing at nightclubs gained widespread popularity in cultural & social life (being recognized as a unique American art form). It also embodied the spirit of youth, rebellion & innovation of the time.
        
        Both In America & Britain, women felt liberated since many had left farms for industrial cities during WWI, and had become resolutely modern. They gained independence as a result of the right to vote (after decades of activism by suffragists), pursued higher education or/and entered the workforce, and challenged societal expectations.
        
        "Flappers" rebelled against conservative Victorian values & traditional gender roles by adopting new fashions, including short skirts, bobbed hair, and makeup. They also engaged in behaviors such as smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol & dancing to Jazz.
- - - - Born in London, 1882 into a well-educated family: his father was a writer & literary critic. However, Woolf was not afforded the opportunity to attend school like her brothers. Sadly, Woolf endured several traumatic losses early on, including the deaths of her mother, step-sister & father, which deeply affected her mental health.
        
        At 22, after her parents' deaths, she settled in Bloomsbury (a district of London), founding the Bloomsbury group, an intellectual circle of friends who met at her house. The group challenged traditional Victorian values and were known for their unconventional ideas about art, politics, sexuality & relationships.
        
        At 30, she married the journalist, essayist & political theorist Leonard Woolf, who supported her romantically & intellectually all through her life. Together they founded the Hogarth Press (1917), initially a small publishing house for their own works that later published some of the most outstanding literature of the time (by T.S. Eliot, Sigmund Freud & others).
        
        Woolf was not only a novelist, but a essayist & literary critic who profoundly impacted feminism with her explorations of the roles & expectations of women (Orlando, A Room of One's Own, etc.).
        
        Woolf was known for her innovative narrative techniques, such as "stream of consciousness" a method capturing the fluid, often fragmented nature of human thought. Her novels like Mrs. Dalloway & To the Lighthouse focused less on plot and more on characters' internal lives.
        
        Woolf suffered from mental health issues throughout her life, such as nervous breakdowns, depression & bipolar disorder, which significantly influenced her writing and would lead to a tragic suicide, where she took her own life by drowning into the river near her home at 59.
        
        New style
        
        (stream-of-consciousness)
        
        Jacob’s Room (1922)
        
        Mrs Dalloway (1925)
        
        To the Lighthouse (1927)
        
        Orlando: a Biography (1928)
        
        The Waves (1931)
        
        The novel centers around the life of Jacob Flanders, but instead of providing a linear, conventional, straightforward account of his life, it is presented through a series of fragmented, impressionistic perspectives, thus capturing the elusive and subjective nature of identity and memory. We see a development in her method, a significant departure from her earlier novels, as her distinctive technique is fully used for the first time. She wanted to leave the realism and move into a new kind of expression which would allow a more internal exploration of the emotions described.
        
        It explores the thoughts & actions of Clarissa Dalloway, an upper-class woman in post-WWI England, whilst preparing a party in a single-day in mid-June in the context of post-WWI London (this structure was influenced by James Joyce’s Ulysses).
        
        It breaks narrative continuity, as it is divided into 3 sections, each with a diff. narrative focus & pace. It is known for its deep psychological /introspective exploration of the characters' thoughts and feelings. The lighthouse represents a symbol of the unattainable or the passage of time.
        
        A satirical biography of a young English nobleman who mysteriously becomes a woman at the age of 30 and lives on for over 300 years without aging. It was inspired by Woolf’s close friend & lover, Vita Sackville-West as a tribute or "love letter". It is also an exploration of gender & identity.
        
        Regarded as her finest, most complex work and a masterpiece of modernist literature. It follows the lives of 6 characters from childhood to old age, where each individual narrates their own inner experience of (the same) events uniquely. It lacks a conventional plot (external action).
        
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        Traditional works
        
        (realistic)
        
        The Voyage Out (1913)
        
        Night and Day (1919)
        
        In her works there is an evolution from traditional works to a completely new, experimental style. When her 1st book obtained good reviews, she continued producing novels, each one a more daring experiment in language & structure.
        
        Her first 2 novels are an early exploration of character analysis/development & social themes, laying the groundwork for the innovative & experimental techniques she would later employ in her more well-known works.
        
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  - - - Born into a working-class family in north England. His father was a drunk & a coal miner, his mother was a former schoolteacher. His upbringing in a poor mining community deeply influenced his works, providing him with material for his exploration of social issues. Despite his humble background, Lawrence was a bright student, and he worked as a teacher before becoming a full-time writer. He began with writing poetry & short stories. His first 2 novels use his early experience as a departure point, drawing heavily from his own life.
        
        In 1912 Lawrence met Frieda Weekley, a German-born woman who was married with his former professor and had 3 children. She left her family to be with Lawrence. Despite the scandal it caused, they fell completely in love, married and ran away to Europe. She became his muse & lifelong companion, greatly influencing Lawrence's life & works despite their often turbulent relationship. He spent much of his life traveling, often fleeing from places where he felt he was being persecuted or misunderstood.
        
        Lawrence had a close & intense relationship with his mother, Lydia. This bond can be seen in Sons and Lovers, a semi-autobiographical story of the emotional conflicts of a young man torn between his love for his mother and his romantic relationships. He was influenced by Sigmund Freud & Carl Jung's theories of psychoanalysis & the subconscious mind.
        
        Lawrence's works were often controversial and faced censorship due to their explicit content and exploration of sexuality (The Rainbow, Women in Love, etc.). His most controversial work, Lady Chatterley’s Lover, which openly depicted sexuality & social class divides, was banned in England & the US for decades. After his death, a landmark obscenity trial where Penguin won the case, marked a turning point in censorship laws in Britain, easing restrictions & paving the way for greater freedom of expression in publishing
        
        After his tragic early death at 44 from complications of tuberculosis, his reputation grew from controversy to being recognized for changing societal attitudes towards sexuality & censorship.
        
        Conventional works
        
        Heavily influenced by his own experiences growing up in a coal-mining community.
        
        A semi-autobiographical novel, a psychological study of the familial & love relationships of a working-class English family in a mining town. It is often discussed in the context of Freudian psychoanalysis, particularly the Oedipus complex.
        
        in style & themes
        (from his upbringing):
        
        The White Peacock (1911)
        
        Sons and Lovers (1913)
        
        Unconventional works
        
        Known for its innovative narrative structure, its controversy & censorship, and its exploration of psychological & sexual themes. The novel was officially banned and was labeled obscene due to its explicit content and discussions of sexuality, and unsold copies were confiscated. Known for its candid exploration of female sexuality seeking independence outside of norms, which was considered feminist & revolutionary.
        
        A sequel to his earlier work The Rainbow, considered by him its second half.
        
        It explores in graphic detail the sexual relationship between an aristocratic/upper-class lady and a working-class man (Connie & Mellors). Initially banned in the US & England, until the 1960 obscenity trial, where the jury found Penguin Books not guilty of violating law and allowed publication of the novel is considered a turning point in the history of freedom of expression and the open discussion of sex in popular culture.
        
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        The Rainbow (1915)
        
        Women in Love (1921)
        
        Lady Chatterley's Lover (1928)
  - - - Born in St. Louis, Missouri into an intellectual family. He studied at Harvard University, where he was influenced by some of his professors in poetry, philosophy and literary criticism. He had several careers: as a teacher, editor, publisher, playwright, philosophical poet & literary critic, and he was probably the most erudite writer of his time.
        
        At 26 he settled in London, England, and he lived there for the rest of his life. He was an American by birth, but British by choice, as he became an official British citizen & converted to Anglicanism (the church of England) in the same year, and his poetic focus shifted towards religious themes. Also, he was deeply influenced by Eastern philosophy & religion, particularly Buddhism & Hinduism (The Waste Land & Four Quartets).
        
        At 27, Eliot's married Vivienne Haigh-Wood, a deeply troubled & tumultuous marriage, as she suffered from mental health issues, which impacted Eliot's life & his writing. He himself suffered from periods of depression & emotional turmoil throughout his life. However, after the death of his 1st wife, he married Valerie Fletcher, his former secretary at Faber and Faber, who was 38 years younger. This marriage was a happy one, bringing Eliot a sense of peace & contentment that had eluded him for much of his life. Valerie was deeply dedicated to preserving and promoting Eliot’s work after his death.
        
        Eliot began a lifelong friendship with American poet Ezra Pound, who immediately recognized his poetic genius and served as a mentor to Eliot in getting The Waste Land published through Virginia & Leonard Woolf's Hogarth Press (Bloomsbury group). Later, at the age of 37, the became the director of the publishing house Faber and Faber. He edited and supported the work of emerging poets like Philip Larkin, becoming one of the most influential publishers in British literary history.
        
        The Waste Land (1922)
        
        The Four Quartets (1943)
        
        The Waste Land
        
        5-poem collection:
        disillusionment & fragmentation
        
        Influenced by WWI
        
        Complexity: literary & cultural references
        
        Fragmented narration
        
        WWI had a profound effect on Eliot, who was living in London when the war broke out. Like many modernist writers, he was deeply affected by the devastation of the war, which influenced his depiction of a world in moral and spiritual crisis. The Waste Land reflects this disillusionment, presenting a fragmented, despairing vision of modern society.
        
        The poem is renowned for its complexity due to the extensive use of allusions to various cultural, literary & religious texts. It contains a wide range of references from ancient mythology (the Arthurian legend of the Fisher King), classical literature (Homer's Odyssey or Shakespeare's plays), and religious texts (the Bible or Buddha's Fire Sermon), making it challenging to understand without a rich cultural background.
        
        The poem is structured as a series of five sections, each with a different tone, setting, and voice. It shifts perspectives and includes voices from various characters. The poem’s fragmented structure mirrors the psychological fragmentation & alienation that Eliot saw as central to modern life. In addition, the use of multiple languages, such as German, French, Italian & Sanskrit, adds to the poem’s complexity, creating an effect of disorientation.
        
        The Four Quartets
        
        Inspired by Eliot's religious conversion
        
        Time & eternity
        
        Death & rebirth/renewal
        
        Eliot’s conversion to Anglicanism profoundly influenced The Four Quartets. Each poem in the collection explores questions of faith, the nature of God, and the possibility of spiritual redemption. The poems can be read as a meditation on Christian spirituality, particularly the Anglican tradition, and reflect Eliot’s deepening interest in finding meaning beyond the material world.
        
        It is a meditation on time & eternity. Eliot explores concepts of linear and cyclical time, examining how human beings experience the present while constantly moving through past memories and anticipating the future. The poems suggest that by being fully present, one might glimpse a sense of eternity.
        
        The poems frequently touch on cycles of death, destruction & rebirth, mirroring both natural cycles & spiritual transformation. E.g. “In my beginning is my end” and “In my end is my beginning.” These cycles suggest that death is not an end but a transition, part of an ongoing process that leads toward spiritual renewal.
  - - - Born in Dublin, Ireland. His family went through financial ups and downs as his father, John Joyce, was a heavy drinker & squandered the family fortune. This affected Joyce deeply and is reflected in the recurring themes of poverty & social decay in Dubliners. Despite these challenges, James Joyce was highly intelligent. He showed a gift for writing & a passion for literature, so his family pushed him to get an education. After college, he studied modern languages at University College Dublin.
        
        Joyce left Ireland in 1904 at the age of 22 with his partner, Nora Barnacle, and lived much of his life in self-imposed exile in various cities across Europe, including Paris, and later Zurich (Switzerland) and Trieste (Italy). He worked as an English teacher and tried to make ends meet while pursuing his literary career. And although most of his adult life was spent abroad, Dublin continued to be the setting of all his fictional works. His strongest criticism on his country was the paralysis of Irish society.
        
        Nora Barnacle played a crucial role in Joyce's life & work. They met in Dublin and their first date, on June 16, 1931, inspired the day on which Ulysses is set. She was also the inspiration for Molly Bloom, the protagonist's wife in Uslysses. The couple eventually married in 1931, but their relationship remained unconventional & deeply intertwined with Joyce's creative process.
        
        Due to its sexual content & innovative style, Ulysses faced significant censorship issues. It was banned in the US & the UK for many years. A famous obscenity trial in 1933 in the US led to Judge ruling in favor of Ulysses, declaring it not obscene. This decision changed the landscape of literary freedom in the US.
        
        He had a remarkable talent for languages, as he could speak 17 languages (became a polyglot & linguist), which is reflected in Finnegans Wake.
        
        Although Joyce is considered one of the greatest writers in the English language today, his work did not bring him financial success during his lifetime, so he relied heavily on the support of patrons.
        
        Dubliners (1913)
        
        A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1915)
        
        Ulysses (1918)
        
        Finnegans Wake (1939)
        
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