social-cognitive

Three Variables

Beliefs

Goals

Evaluative standards

Self

Self-schemas

Markus, 1977

Reaction time

Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994

Sexual self-schemas

Working self-schema

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Motives

Self-enhancement

Self-verification

Learning v Performance Goals

Elliot & Dweck, 1988

Implicit Beliefs

Incremental (Malleable)

Entity (Fixed)

Ideal-Actual Discrepancy

Ought-Actual Discrepancy

Anxiety/Worry

Depression/Dejection

General Principles Approach (Higgins)

KAPA Model

Knowledge

Appraisal

Assessment Strategy

Context

Idiosyncrasy

Rep Test

Cross-situational Consistency

Clinical Applications

Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Health

Psychopathology

Therapeutic Change

Bandura 1977 Guided Mastery

Wiedenfeld et al 1990 Snake Phobia Helper T Cells

Cognitive Therapy

Lazarus Coping Styles

Problem-focused coping

Emotion-focused coping

Stress-Inoculation Training

Ellis' Rational-Emotive Therapy

Beck's CT for Depression

Beliefs about events determine responses

Cognitive Triad

Self

World

Future

Psychodynamic

Freud

Mechanist movement

Energy system

Energy is limited resource

Energy can be blocked

Expressed in other ways

Mind functions to achieve quiescence (Homeostasis)

Hysteria

Anna O

Catharsis

Relied on case study and limited sample

Structure

Topographic Model (Levels of Consciousness)

Conscious

Preconscious

Unconscious

Dreams

Manifest Content

Wish Fulfilment

Structural Model (Id, Ego, Superego)

Id

Ego

Superego

Pleasure Principle

Subliminal perception

Source of instincts and energies

Moral / Social Desirability

Perfectionism

Reality Principle

Hedonistic

Delayed Gratification

Process

Life and Death Instincts

Death Instinct :

Life Instinct

Reproduction

Sexual drive

Aggressive instinct

Preservation

Dynamics of Functioning

Anxiety

Defense Mechanisms

Denial

Projection

Isolation

Undoing

Reaction formation

Rationalisation

Sublimation

Repression

Intellectualisation

Compartmentalisation

Newman et al, 1997

Chronically Accessible

Repressive style

Higher Blood Pressure

Higher Risk of Illness

Opposite

Socially Desirable Behaviour

Does not require constant energy expenditure

Growth and Development

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Erogenous Zones

Oral Stage

Anal Stage

Phallic Stage

Castration Anxiety

Oedipus Complex

Penis Envy

Identification

Latency stage

Genital Stage

Eriksson

Psychosocial Stages of Development

Basic Trust v Mistrust

Autonomy v Shame and Doubt

Initiative v Guilt

Industry v Inferiority

Identity v Role Diffusion

Intimacy v Isolation

Generativity v Stagnation

Integrity v Despair

Marcia

Identity Achievement

Identity Moratorium

Identity Foreclosure

Identity Diffusion

Thinking Processes

Primary Process

Secondary Process

Importance of Early Experience

Gaensbauer, 1982

Pattern of early interpersonal relationships > isolated events

Projective Tests

Items are ambiguous

Indiviudal's interpretation/reponse indicative of personality

Rorscach Inkblot

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

10 cards

Content of responses analysed

May be analysed symbolically

Henry Murray

Christina Morgan

Criticisms

Low Interrator reliability

Content nothing to do with test-taker's everyday life

Can only predict limtied outcomes

Multiple scoring systems (some more valid than others)

Psychopathology

Personality Types

Fixations

Regression

Failure of development of instincts in a given psychosexual stage

Too Little Gratification

Too Much Gratification

Return to earlier stage of development during conditions of distress

Oral

Anal

Phallic

Envious

Pessimistic

Impatient

Rigid

Control-freak

Possessive

Male

Female

Exhibitionistic

Competitive

Macho

Seductive

Naive

Psychological Change

Free-association

Transference

Adler

Jung

Sense of inferiority motivates behaviour

Everyone experiences inferiority during childhood

Libido is more general life force than purely sexual

Collective Unconscious

Within the Unconscious, people store the experience of past generations

Interpersonal

Karen Horney

Harry Stack Sullivan

Influenced by:

Differences in Personality US / Europe

Culture -> Gender Identity

Erich Fromm

Psychopathology

Anxiety

Moving Toward

Moving Against

Moving Away

Emotional experiences come from relationships with others

Self

Object Relations

Innate Drives

Objects (Significant Others)

Objects shape later perceptions of others

Attachment Theory

John Bowlby

Attachment Behavioural System (ABS)

Internal Working Models

Innate

Motivates infant to be close to caregiver

Proximity to caregiver provides ''secure base''

Symbolic mental representations involving the caregivers and the self

Contain abstract beliefs and expectations about S/Os

Once formed, these are enduring

Adult Attachment Styles

Hazan & Shaver 1987

Love Quiz

Love is perceived differently according to attachment type

Mary Ainsworth

Attachment Styles

Secure

Anxious-Avoidant

Anxious-Ambivalent

Attachment Dimensions

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Phenomenological

Rogers

Subjectivity of Experience

Phenomenal Field

Authenticity

Positive Motivation

Inner psychological needs shape interpretation of the world

As opposed to the Need for Approval

Individual thinks but does not feel attachment to their own values

Structure

Self (or Self-concept)

Organised

Ideal self

Values

Q-sort Technique

Semantic Differential

Process

Self-Actualisation

Personal Growth Scale

Self-Consistency

Lecky, 1945

Motivation to Maintain Consistency

As opposed to Pleasure Principle

Incongruence

Subception

Distortion

Denial

Chodokorf, 1954

Cartwright, 1956

Aronson & Mettee, 1968

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Cheating

Need For Positive Regard

Psychological Needs

Accepted and Respect from others

Conditions of Worth

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Growth and Development

Parent-Child Interactions

Internal Psychological Structures

Attributions Of Behaviour

Authenticity or Incongruency

Coopersmith, 1967

Degree of Acceptance

Permissiveness and Punishment

Democratic or Dictatorial

Roberts and Chapman, 2000

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Psychopathology

Self-Experience Discrepancy

Defense Behaviours

Rationalisation

Fantasy

Projection

Psychological Change

Reflection

Client-Centered Therapy

Unconditional Positive Regard

Empathetic Understanding

Genuineness (Congruence)

Butler & Haigh 1954

Control group (+.59)

At six month follow up, clients were still on average +.31.

Pretest-posttest one-group of the Q-sort before and after Rogerian therapy. Posttest Q-sort actual-idea congruence was +.34

Presence

Maslow

Innate Goodness

Psychopathology

Social Structures Restrict Ability to Self-Actualise

Positive Psychology Movement

Pyramid of Needs

Biological Needs

Psychological Needs

Unusually high-functioning individuals to be studied

Classify Human Strengths

Strength Criteria

Enduring

Beneficial in Multiple Life Domains

Parents and Larger Society Foster

Celebrated when developed

Valued cross-culturally

Strengths

Wisdom

Courage

Love

Justice

Temperance

Forgiveness

Transcendence

Appreciation of Beauty

Fredrickson 2001, 2009

Broaden-and-Build Theory

Positive Emotions

Broaden Thoughts and Action Tendencies

More Options

People Pursue Novel Activities

Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004

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Self-Discrepancy Theory

Actual-Ideal

Actual-Ought

Deci & Ryan, 1985

Self-Determination Theory (CAR)

Competency

Autonomy

Relatedness

Self-concept and Culture

Independent/Interdependent

Need for positive regard may be a taught need in the West

Self-criticism does not influence self-esteem

Personality Systems Interaction (PSI) Theory

Analytical Thinking System

Holistic Thinking-and-Feeling System

Intuitive Behaviour Control System

Discrepancy Detection System

Baumann & Kuhl, 2002

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Trait Theories

Traits

Consistent

Distinctive

Gordon W. Allport

Structure

Cardinal Trait

Central Trait

Secondary Disposition

Process

Functional Autonomy

Idiographic Research

Raymond B. Cattell

Structure

Surface Traits

Source Traits

Ability Traits

Temperament Traits

Dynamic Traits

Skills and Abilities

Emotional life and style of behaviour

Motivations

Variability

State

Role

Hans J. Eysenck

Superfactors

Introversion-Extroversion

Neuroticism

Psychoticism

Biological Bases

Campbell & Hawley, 1982

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Psychopathology

Symptoms mainly of biological nature (NS function)

Criticisms

Did not use neuroimaging

Brain proved more complex than Eysenck could have realised

Questionnaires could not capture this

Cognitive Factors impact performance

Five-Factor Model

Lexical Hypothesis

Factor Analysis

Costa & McCrae

NEO

NEO-PI-R

Facets

Good Interrater Reliability(Test-takers + Observers agree)

Growth and Development

Age Differences

Stability v Change

Applications

Older Adults

Lower N, E, O

Higher A + C

Adolescents

Lower A + C

Higher N, E, O

Stability observed over shorter periods of time (i.e. months rather than years)

More stability in adulthood than childhood

Stability is facilitated by genetic and environmental factors

Vocation

Subjective Well-Being

Health

People Higher in C Live Longer

Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment

Criticisms

Merely descriptive

Does not provide processes

Hard Nature Stance

Underemphasises social influence

Population-level analyses innappropriate for personal-level analysis

Sixth Factor?

Honesty/Humility present in Five Factor Questionnaires

Nouns and Verbs may also convey lexical information

Culture

Translation shifts meaning/connotation

Adamant Five-Factor is Universal (culture-free?)

Di Blas & Forzi 1999

E, A, C structure more replicable in Italian

Valchev et al., 2002

Gurven et al., 2013

Singh et al., 2013

Black South Africans

White South Africans

Social-relational descriptors

Personal Growth

Abstract

Tsiname Big Two

Triguna

Better to reperform lexical hypothesis factor-analysis within culture's language rather than translate

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

Behavioural Approach System

Fight-Flight-Freeze System

Behavioural Inhibition System

Resolves Goal Conflicts

Pickering & Corr, 2008

People with active BAS more impulsive than others

People with sensitive FFFS prone to fear-related clinical disorders such as phobias

People with active BIS prone to anxiety

Identifiable RST Biological Mechanisms (based on Neuroimaging research)

No 1-1 mapping of Big Five to Underlying Biology

Person-Situation Controversy

Evidence of Longitudinal Consistency, but not Cross-Situational Consistency

Consistency Within-Domains rather than Between-Domains

Cognitive

Kelly

Constructive Alternativism

Range of Convenience

Focus of Convenience

Theories should be evaluated by utility (predictive validity)

Person-as-Scientist

People are essentially future-oriented

Free and Determined

Determined in the sense we cannot make choices outside of the world of alternatives we have erected for ourselves

Free in the sense that we deal with the Meaning of events rather than are pushed around by them

Structure

Construct

Element of Knowledge

Used to Interpret or Construe the World

Activated automatically/unconsciously

Three Elements

Similarity Pole

Contrast Pole

Simpson et al., 2004

Hospital managers who were responsible for the hospital's business operations and whose background often was outside of health care

Simpson et al asked the clinicians and managers to enumerate the characteristics that were ideal for a clinician and a manager

Groups were surprised by areas of commonality, which then facilitated communication

Clinical health professionals who were responsible for patient care

Types of Constructs

Verbal

Preverbal

Submerged

Core

Peripheral

Superordinate

Subordinate

Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test

Grice, 2004

Only half of the variation in the personal construct test was predictable from big five scores

Idiographic grid alike Kelly's, which was compared to Big Five

Cognitive Complexity

Bieri 1955

Class of college students asked to rep grid others in the class, which the constructs were analysed to determine cognitive complexity

Then participants multiple choice test in which they had to predict how other students in the class would behave in a variety of hypothetical situations, where whatever answer they picked for themselves then became the correct answer

Cognitive complexity predicted accuracy

Process

Anticipating Events

People basically seek to expand Range of Convenience

Anxiety, Fear, Threat

Anxiety

Fear

Threat

Recognition that Events occur outside of Range of Convenience

Broaden

Narrow

Less Intensive

New Construct Forming

Awareness of Imminent change to Core Structure

Growth and Development

Cognitive Complexity Increases

Psychopathology

Disordered Response to Anxiety

Fixed-Role Therapy

After establishing basic understanding of the client, a psych or team of psychs write a sketch of a new person, an alternative type of person that the client can ''try out'' as a way of expanding their construct system

After drawn up, sketch is presented to client. Client decides whether the sketch sounds like someone they would like to know, and whether they would be comfortable with such a person. this is done to ensure the new personality will not be excessively threatening to the client

Therapist invites client to act as if they were that person, for about 2 weeks, the client is asked to forget who they are and be this other person

Kelly suggests this may be easier if sketch sharply contrasts with the person's current functioning

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Civilisation restricts instincts

Conflict and Defense

Intrapsychic Conflict between Wish and Anxiety

Symptoms

Compulsion

Psychological Paralysis

Tic

Ego-Ideal