social-cognitive
Three Variables
Beliefs
Goals
Evaluative standards
Self
Self-schemas
Markus, 1977
Reaction time
Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994
Sexual self-schemas
Working self-schema
Motives
Self-enhancement
Self-verification
Learning v Performance Goals
Elliot & Dweck, 1988
Implicit Beliefs
Incremental (Malleable)
Entity (Fixed)
Ideal-Actual Discrepancy
Ought-Actual Discrepancy
Anxiety/Worry
Depression/Dejection
General Principles Approach (Higgins)
KAPA Model
Knowledge
Appraisal
Assessment Strategy
Context
Idiosyncrasy
Rep Test
Cross-situational Consistency
Clinical Applications
Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Health
Psychopathology
Therapeutic Change
Bandura 1977 Guided Mastery
Wiedenfeld et al 1990 Snake Phobia Helper T Cells
Cognitive Therapy
Lazarus Coping Styles
Problem-focused coping
Emotion-focused coping
Stress-Inoculation Training
Ellis' Rational-Emotive Therapy
Beck's CT for Depression
Beliefs about events determine responses
Cognitive Triad
Self
World
Future
Psychodynamic
Freud
Mechanist movement
Energy system
Energy is limited resource
Energy can be blocked
Expressed in other ways
Mind functions to achieve quiescence (Homeostasis)
Hysteria
Anna O
Catharsis
Relied on case study and limited sample
Structure
Topographic Model (Levels of Consciousness)
Conscious
Preconscious
Unconscious
Dreams
Manifest Content
Wish Fulfilment
Structural Model (Id, Ego, Superego)
Id
Ego
Superego
Pleasure Principle
Subliminal perception
Source of instincts and energies
Moral / Social Desirability
Perfectionism
Reality Principle
Hedonistic
Delayed Gratification
Process
Life and Death Instincts
Death Instinct :
Life Instinct
Reproduction
Sexual drive
Aggressive instinct
Preservation
Dynamics of Functioning
Anxiety
Defense Mechanisms
Denial
Projection
Isolation
Undoing
Reaction formation
Rationalisation
Sublimation
Repression
Intellectualisation
Compartmentalisation
Newman et al, 1997
Chronically Accessible
Repressive style
Higher Blood Pressure
Higher Risk of Illness
Opposite
Socially Desirable Behaviour
Does not require constant energy expenditure
Growth and Development
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Erogenous Zones
Oral Stage
Anal Stage
Phallic Stage
Castration Anxiety
Oedipus Complex
Penis Envy
Identification
Latency stage
Genital Stage
Eriksson
Psychosocial Stages of Development
Basic Trust v Mistrust
Autonomy v Shame and Doubt
Initiative v Guilt
Industry v Inferiority
Identity v Role Diffusion
Intimacy v Isolation
Generativity v Stagnation
Integrity v Despair
Marcia
Identity Achievement
Identity Moratorium
Identity Foreclosure
Identity Diffusion
Thinking Processes
Primary Process
Secondary Process
Importance of Early Experience
Gaensbauer, 1982
Pattern of early interpersonal relationships > isolated events
Projective Tests
Items are ambiguous
Indiviudal's interpretation/reponse indicative of personality
Rorscach Inkblot
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
10 cards
Content of responses analysed
May be analysed symbolically
Henry Murray
Christina Morgan
Criticisms
Low Interrator reliability
Content nothing to do with test-taker's everyday life
Can only predict limtied outcomes
Multiple scoring systems (some more valid than others)
Psychopathology
Personality Types
Fixations
Regression
Failure of development of instincts in a given psychosexual stage
Too Little Gratification
Too Much Gratification
Return to earlier stage of development during conditions of distress
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Envious
Pessimistic
Impatient
Rigid
Control-freak
Possessive
Male
Female
Exhibitionistic
Competitive
Macho
Seductive
Naive
Psychological Change
Free-association
Transference
Adler
Jung
Sense of inferiority motivates behaviour
Everyone experiences inferiority during childhood
Libido is more general life force than purely sexual
Collective Unconscious
Within the Unconscious, people store the experience of past generations
Interpersonal
Karen Horney
Harry Stack Sullivan
Influenced by:
Differences in Personality US / Europe
Culture -> Gender Identity
Erich Fromm
Psychopathology
Anxiety
Moving Toward
Moving Against
Moving Away
Emotional experiences come from relationships with others
Self
Object Relations
Innate Drives
Objects (Significant Others)
Objects shape later perceptions of others
Attachment Theory
John Bowlby
Attachment Behavioural System (ABS)
Internal Working Models
Innate
Motivates infant to be close to caregiver
Proximity to caregiver provides ''secure base''
Symbolic mental representations involving the caregivers and the self
Contain abstract beliefs and expectations about S/Os
Once formed, these are enduring
Adult Attachment Styles
Hazan & Shaver 1987
Love Quiz
Love is perceived differently according to attachment type
Mary Ainsworth
Attachment Styles
Secure
Anxious-Avoidant
Anxious-Ambivalent
Attachment Dimensions
Phenomenological
Rogers
Subjectivity of Experience
Phenomenal Field
Authenticity
Positive Motivation
Inner psychological needs shape interpretation of the world
As opposed to the Need for Approval
Individual thinks but does not feel attachment to their own values
Structure
Self (or Self-concept)
Organised
Ideal self
Values
Q-sort Technique
Semantic Differential
Process
Self-Actualisation
Personal Growth Scale
Self-Consistency
Lecky, 1945
Motivation to Maintain Consistency
As opposed to Pleasure Principle
Incongruence
Subception
Distortion
Denial
Chodokorf, 1954
Cartwright, 1956
Aronson & Mettee, 1968
Cheating
Need For Positive Regard
Psychological Needs
Accepted and Respect from others
Conditions of Worth
Growth and Development
Parent-Child Interactions
Internal Psychological Structures
Attributions Of Behaviour
Authenticity or Incongruency
Coopersmith, 1967
Degree of Acceptance
Permissiveness and Punishment
Democratic or Dictatorial
Roberts and Chapman, 2000
Psychopathology
Self-Experience Discrepancy
Defense Behaviours
Rationalisation
Fantasy
Projection
Psychological Change
Reflection
Client-Centered Therapy
Unconditional Positive Regard
Empathetic Understanding
Genuineness (Congruence)
Butler & Haigh 1954
Control group (+.59)
At six month follow up, clients were still on average +.31.
Pretest-posttest one-group of the Q-sort before and after Rogerian therapy. Posttest Q-sort actual-idea congruence was +.34
Presence
Maslow
Innate Goodness
Psychopathology
Social Structures Restrict Ability to Self-Actualise
Positive Psychology Movement
Pyramid of Needs
Biological Needs
Psychological Needs
Unusually high-functioning individuals to be studied
Classify Human Strengths
Strength Criteria
Enduring
Beneficial in Multiple Life Domains
Parents and Larger Society Foster
Celebrated when developed
Valued cross-culturally
Strengths
Wisdom
Courage
Love
Justice
Temperance
Forgiveness
Transcendence
Appreciation of Beauty
Fredrickson 2001, 2009
Broaden-and-Build Theory
Positive Emotions
Broaden Thoughts and Action Tendencies
More Options
People Pursue Novel Activities
Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004
Self-Discrepancy Theory
Actual-Ideal
Actual-Ought
Deci & Ryan, 1985
Self-Determination Theory (CAR)
Competency
Autonomy
Relatedness
Self-concept and Culture
Independent/Interdependent
Need for positive regard may be a taught need in the West
Self-criticism does not influence self-esteem
Personality Systems Interaction (PSI) Theory
Analytical Thinking System
Holistic Thinking-and-Feeling System
Intuitive Behaviour Control System
Discrepancy Detection System
Baumann & Kuhl, 2002
Trait Theories
Traits
Consistent
Distinctive
Gordon W. Allport
Structure
Cardinal Trait
Central Trait
Secondary Disposition
Process
Functional Autonomy
Idiographic Research
Raymond B. Cattell
Structure
Surface Traits
Source Traits
Ability Traits
Temperament Traits
Dynamic Traits
Skills and Abilities
Emotional life and style of behaviour
Motivations
Variability
State
Role
Hans J. Eysenck
Superfactors
Introversion-Extroversion
Neuroticism
Psychoticism
Biological Bases
Campbell & Hawley, 1982
Psychopathology
Symptoms mainly of biological nature (NS function)
Criticisms
Did not use neuroimaging
Brain proved more complex than Eysenck could have realised
Questionnaires could not capture this
Cognitive Factors impact performance
Five-Factor Model
Lexical Hypothesis
Factor Analysis
Costa & McCrae
NEO
NEO-PI-R
Facets
Good Interrater Reliability(Test-takers + Observers agree)
Growth and Development
Age Differences
Stability v Change
Applications
Older Adults
Lower N, E, O
Higher A + C
Adolescents
Lower A + C
Higher N, E, O
Stability observed over shorter periods of time (i.e. months rather than years)
More stability in adulthood than childhood
Stability is facilitated by genetic and environmental factors
Vocation
Subjective Well-Being
Health
People Higher in C Live Longer
Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment
Criticisms
Merely descriptive
Does not provide processes
Hard Nature Stance
Underemphasises social influence
Population-level analyses innappropriate for personal-level analysis
Sixth Factor?
Honesty/Humility present in Five Factor Questionnaires
Nouns and Verbs may also convey lexical information
Culture
Translation shifts meaning/connotation
Adamant Five-Factor is Universal (culture-free?)
Di Blas & Forzi 1999
E, A, C structure more replicable in Italian
Valchev et al., 2002
Gurven et al., 2013
Singh et al., 2013
Black South Africans
White South Africans
Social-relational descriptors
Personal Growth
Abstract
Tsiname Big Two
Triguna
Better to reperform lexical hypothesis factor-analysis within culture's language rather than translate
Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
Behavioural Approach System
Fight-Flight-Freeze System
Behavioural Inhibition System
Resolves Goal Conflicts
Pickering & Corr, 2008
People with active BAS more impulsive than others
People with sensitive FFFS prone to fear-related clinical disorders such as phobias
People with active BIS prone to anxiety
Identifiable RST Biological Mechanisms (based on Neuroimaging research)
No 1-1 mapping of Big Five to Underlying Biology
Person-Situation Controversy
Evidence of Longitudinal Consistency, but not Cross-Situational Consistency
Consistency Within-Domains rather than Between-Domains
Cognitive
Kelly
Constructive Alternativism
Range of Convenience
Focus of Convenience
Theories should be evaluated by utility (predictive validity)
Person-as-Scientist
People are essentially future-oriented
Free and Determined
Determined in the sense we cannot make choices outside of the world of alternatives we have erected for ourselves
Free in the sense that we deal with the Meaning of events rather than are pushed around by them
Structure
Construct
Element of Knowledge
Used to Interpret or Construe the World
Activated automatically/unconsciously
Three Elements
Similarity Pole
Contrast Pole
Simpson et al., 2004
Hospital managers who were responsible for the hospital's business operations and whose background often was outside of health care
Simpson et al asked the clinicians and managers to enumerate the characteristics that were ideal for a clinician and a manager
Groups were surprised by areas of commonality, which then facilitated communication
Clinical health professionals who were responsible for patient care
Types of Constructs
Verbal
Preverbal
Submerged
Core
Peripheral
Superordinate
Subordinate
Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test
Grice, 2004
Only half of the variation in the personal construct test was predictable from big five scores
Idiographic grid alike Kelly's, which was compared to Big Five
Cognitive Complexity
Bieri 1955
Class of college students asked to rep grid others in the class, which the constructs were analysed to determine cognitive complexity
Then participants multiple choice test in which they had to predict how other students in the class would behave in a variety of hypothetical situations, where whatever answer they picked for themselves then became the correct answer
Cognitive complexity predicted accuracy
Process
Anticipating Events
People basically seek to expand Range of Convenience
Anxiety, Fear, Threat
Anxiety
Fear
Threat
Recognition that Events occur outside of Range of Convenience
Broaden
Narrow
Less Intensive
New Construct Forming
Awareness of Imminent change to Core Structure
Growth and Development
Cognitive Complexity Increases
Psychopathology
Disordered Response to Anxiety
Fixed-Role Therapy
After establishing basic understanding of the client, a psych or team of psychs write a sketch of a new person, an alternative type of person that the client can ''try out'' as a way of expanding their construct system
After drawn up, sketch is presented to client. Client decides whether the sketch sounds like someone they would like to know, and whether they would be comfortable with such a person. this is done to ensure the new personality will not be excessively threatening to the client
Therapist invites client to act as if they were that person, for about 2 weeks, the client is asked to forget who they are and be this other person
Kelly suggests this may be easier if sketch sharply contrasts with the person's current functioning
Civilisation restricts instincts
Conflict and Defense
Intrapsychic Conflict between Wish and Anxiety
Symptoms
Compulsion
Psychological Paralysis
Tic
Ego-Ideal