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General Theoretical Perspectives and the Sociology of Education, Key…
General Theoretical Perspectives and the Sociology of Education
Functional Theory
Robert K. Merton
Latent
Implicit function
Purpose of human behavior
Manifest
Actual function
E. Durkheim
• Notable works:
"The Division of Labor in Society,"
"Education and Sociology."
the role of the educational system
socialize individuals
Stimulate and develop children's physical, intellectual, and moral qualities
Adapt to the specific environment of overall political society and individual future needs
maintain social existence
Education is an indispensable function of society, and its implementation responds to social demands
Education creates institutional compatibility among the components of the social system
elements of educational activities
The presence of one generation of adults and an immature generation
The influence of the adult generation on the immature generation
Pioneered the use of structural-functionalism
T. Parsons
Introduced "social action" as the unit of analysis
Under social institutions, roles represent the meaning of role expectations
Roles: Expectations of behavior assigned by social institutions, and when individuals fulfill their role obligations, the system's functions can be entirely performed, leading to stable social development
Social action is a deliberate, systematic social system of interactive relationships
Renowned American sociologist from Harvard University and the most prominent representative of structural-functionalism in the 20th century
Analyzes the primary functions of the American primary and secondary school class system from a sociological perspective
Socialization function
Selection function
function
Integration function
Goal-attainment function
Adaptation function
Pattern-maintenance function
Conflict Theory
marxian-inspired conflict theories
Marxian theories emphasize the role of class struggle and the unequal distribution of resources as fundamental drivers of social change and conflict in capitalist societies
Alienation
This alienation extends to other aspects of life, such as culture and politics.
Capitalism and Exploitation
capitalism inherently leads to the exploitation of the working class
Historical Materialism
Changes in the mode of production (e.g., feudalism to capitalism) lead to shifts in social relations and class struggle.
Revolution and Social Change
his revolution is seen as an inevitable outcome of class contradictions within capitalism
Class Struggle
The primary conflict in society is the class struggle between the capitalist class (bourgeoisie), who own and control these resources, and the working class (proletariat), who must sell their labor to survive.
Critique of Ideology
Marxist argue that dominant ideologies, such as religion, culture, and the media, are often used by the ruling class to justify their power and control over the means of production
weberian-inspired conflict theories
Weber is often associated with his studies on bureaucracy and the concept of rationalization, his ideas have also contributed to our understanding of social conflict and inequality.
Multiple Sources of Conflict
Weber recognized that conflict in society could arise from various sources, including class, status (social prestige or honor), and power
Class and Social Stratification
Weber's concept of "life chances" refers to the opportunities individuals have in terms of education, employment, and social mobility based on their class position
Status Groups
Status groups can create conflicts and hierarchies based on non-economic factors, such as ethnicity, religion, or cultural distinctions
Power and Authority
traditional authority (based on custom and tradition)
charismatic authority (based on the personal qualities of leaders)
rational-legal authority (based on rules and regulations)
Bureaucracy and Rationalization
Weber noted that bureaucracies can lead to both efficiency and alienation, and conflicts can emerge within bureaucratic structures
Symbolic Interactionism
This perspective highlights how social conflict can also arise from differing interpretations and perceptions
Value Neutrality
Weber argued that sociologists should strive for "value neutrality" in their research, meaning they should separate their personal values and beliefs from their empirical observations
Interpretive Theory
Critical Theory
Representative figures include Herbert Marcuse and Jürgen Habermas.
Inherited the "critical tradition" of Kant, Hegel, and Marx, criticizing the "ideology" behind hegemony, domination, and dominance in human social development .
Believes that the "instrumental rationality" of technological and civilizational development distorts and devalues human nature, so it seeks to awaken people.
Facilitating the awakening of critical consciousness in society.
This critical and reflective awareness can guide social change through educational influence.
Critical reflection of subjectivity.
Advocates for "dialectical method"
A way of thinking and practice.
Emphasizes the importance of objective int erpret at ion.
Based on rational rules formed between "individual reflective consciousness" and "collective practical activities."
Focuses on the analysis of "micro-level consciousness" while also addressing issues at the "macro-level" (politics, culture, economy, structural issues).
Schools of Theory Thoughts
Dependency theory
World-system theory
Frankfurt School (Habermas)
Postmodernism
Sociology of Knowledge
Inherited theories from Husserl and Schutz, making sociology of knowledge a systematic discipline.
After the research on the relationship between knowledge and education by Young and Bernstein, the sociology of knowledge gradually shifted from macro-level analysis to micro-level analysis.
"Knowledge is socially constructed, and the curriculum is organized knowledge." (Young)
Derived from phenomenological sociology.
Argues that the selection, classification, transmission, and evaluation of school curriculum (educational knowledge) are related to social structures and reflect the distribution of social power. "Knowledge itself is also hierarchical."
For example, schools arrange and utilize curricula to instill values, beliefs, and ideologies, leading students to passively accept facts and suppress their critical abilities, resulting in the reproduction of social inequality.
"Human beings" are authors of the world they inhabit and have the active ability to construct knowledge
Related or aligned perspectives
Micro-level: Symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology.
Harmonizing Macro and Micro: Critical theory, ideology and curriculum research. (M. Apple)
Macro-level: Consensus theories, correspondence theories.
Phenomenology
Edmund Husserl
"Intentionality" and "bracketing" are used to explore the essence and truth of things.
The concept of "intersubjectivity" was further developed by Alfred Schutz, becoming an important analytical tool in modern sociology and interpretive theories.
"Return to the phenomenon itself" to understand the world and ourselves, setting aside speculation and the natural attitude to face its essential aspects.
Symbolic Interactionism
Other Branches
Dramaturgy by Erving Goffman
Ethnomethodology
Labeling theory by Howard S. Becker
People use symbolic symbols (e.g., language, gestures, expressions) to express ideas, values, and thoughts during interactions.
Symbolic meanings can vary and have different interpretations depending on individuals and contexts, often resulting in corresponding effects.
Harold Blumer
synthesized and expanded these concepts in the 1950s.
Analyzes micro-social phenomena from a perspective of "social psychology" and describes "dynamic interpersonal relationships.”
Developed by George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, and William I. Thomas.
Symbolic interactionism.
Studies the nature and processes of interaction between individuals, focusing on self, interaction, and symbolic meanings.
Ethnomethodology
Founder: Harold Garfinkel
Founded in the 1960s, the United States
Explores how people make sense of their life world and understand its meaning.
Two concepts:
(1) Reflexivity: Actors have reflective consciousness and critical abilities in their activities.
(2) Indexicality: Language symbols have specific meanings in different contexts. (Effective communication requires understanding cultural backgrounds )
Influenced by phenomenology and symbolic interactionism, it focuses on the "common-sense knowledge" of everyday life.
Advocates for "participant observation," which merged with symbolic interactionism in the 1970s to analyze interpersonal relationships within schools. It is known as "ethnography of schooling.”
Key Principles
Key Principles