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Biology: the study of life, Chapter 5, have thins in common, Formation and…

- - - - Protists
      - Plantae
      - Fungi
      - Animalia
  - - - 2.) Ecosystem: Area/Island
        
        3.) Community : organisms in ecosystem
        
        4.) Population: particular species
        
        5.) Organisms: an individual living being
        
        6.) Organs and organ systems: body parts that perform a specific function.
        
        7.) Tissue: group of similar cells performing a specific function.
        
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  - - - Expereiments
      - Data
      - in order to create a hypothesis you need a something testable
      - observations
        
        observations
    - - a broad scope and supported by a large body of evidence.
      - what is science
        
        everyday theory
        
        Theory of Relativity
        
        Gravity influences time and space
        
        Theory of evolution by natural selection
        
        population of organisms change over time adapting to their environment.
        
        Cell theory
        
        all living things are are of cells
        
        observation: Flashlight
    - - itmust generate preditcitons
  - - - compared in a control group
    - - manipulated by the researcher
    - - what is effected during the experiment
  - - - observed physical similarities: the red panda was mostly closely related to raccoons.
      - observed diet and habitat: similar to giant pandas
      - compared DNA sequences: the only living species of own family
  - - - because a core component of science is testable explanations of nature.
  - - - science
        
        understand natural phenomena
      - technology
        
        apply science for specific purpose
      - society
        
        improvement of conditions
  - - - process of change that has transformed life on earth from its earliest forms
    - - observations: heritable variations and overproduction
        
        inferences natural selection unequal reproduction success leads to evolution of adaptation in populations
        
        differences in population opassed on to offpsring, color
        
        only certain trait awill reproduce. limmited reasources.
  - - - tyope of dogs, types of vegetables, or skin tone
      - atrificial slection: our crops livestack and pets bear resemblence to their wild ancestors
  - - - pancreatic cell releases insulin
        
        insulin binding stimulates body cells to take up glucose
        
        normal blood glucose level removes signal insulin realse stops
  - - - computational and mathmatical analysis and modeling of complex biological systems
  - - - life requirementnts
        
        Energy
        
        Photosythesis
        
        sugar and oxygen are produced
        
        some energy in sunlight captured by chloroplasts
        
        cellular respiration
        
        https://youtu.be/eJ9Zjc-jdys?si=k02hL5n9BHONZjYF
        
        cells capture energy from electrons "falling" from organic fuels to oxygen
        
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        atoms of carbon dioxide and water are rearranged
        
        breathing
        
        respiration
        
        reepiration in the breahting sense to an exhancge of gasses.
        
        cellular respiration
        
        cellular respiration is the aerobic harvesting of energy
        
        transfers energy from glucose ro form atp
        
        exergonic (energy -relased) process
      - stanges of cellular respiration
        
        stages
        
        stage 1 glycolysis
        
        Location Cytosol
        
        breaks down glucose into two molecules of a three carbon compound called pyruvate
        
        output : 2 pyruvate , 4 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 H20
        
        input 1 glucose , 2 atp, 2NAD+
        
        gives up electrons
        
        as a fiorm of hydrogen ions
        
        ferrmentaion
        
        stage 2
        
        pyruvate oxidation and citric acid cycle
        
        location: Mitochondria
        
        oxidize pyruvate
        
        acetyl CoA, CO2, and NADH
        
        for each turn of the acid cycle
        
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        stage 3
        
        oxidative phosphorylation involves electron transport and chemiosmosis
        
        trasferring electrons from donors to acceptors 0s
        
        create electrochemical gradient of mions
      - mitochondria in brow fat can burn fuel and produce heat
        
        does not use atp
      - cellular respiration fuel
        
        carbohydrates
        
        fats
        
        protiens
        
        brown fatb
      - cells uses intermediated from cellular respiration and atp for biosytheses of other organic molecules
        
        metobllic pathways are often fegulated by feed back inhibition
      - fementaion: anaerobic harvesting or energy
        
        way iof harvesting chemical energy
        
        under anaerobic conditiions mucsle cells yeast bacteria produce atp
        
        NAD+ is recycled
        
        NADH as Pyruvate is reduces to
        
        lactate (lactic acid fermentation
        
        Lactate(lactic acid fermentaion)
    - - photosythesis fuels the biosphere
        
        heterotrophs
        
        decomposers
        
        if not all the ead stuff would oile up
        
        autotrophs
        
        photoautotrophs
        
        makes their own food
        
        happens on the leafs on the plant
        
        leaf
        
        stomata
        
        chloroplassts
        
        grana
        
        chlorophyll
        
        thylakoid
        
        stroma
        
        mesophyll
        
        passiv e reaction
      - photosythesis=
        
        redox (oxidation-reduction) porocess
        
        phososythesis
        
        H20 is oxidized
        
        C02 is reduced
        
        celllular respiration glucose is oxidized and H20 is reduced
        
        light reactions
        
        thylakoids
        
        make atp and nadph
        
        calvin cycle
      - light reactions
        
        light =electromagnetic energy
        
        electromagnetic radiation
        
        photon
        
        wavelength
        
        pigments violet to red
        
        obsorbes the light
        
        leaves braking doen in different pigments as the season changed, the sun goes away and the exposuse of the hif=dden colors.
        
        photosystems
        
        light harvesting complexes
        
        reaction center complex
      - calvin cycle
        
        CO2 to sugar
        
        steps of the calvin sycle
        
        carbon fixation
        
        reduction
        
        releaseof G3P
        
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        carbon from CO2 + electrons from NADH
        
        https://youtu.be/sQK3Yr4Sc_k?si=ZRyReDbZXwtOAvjx
        
        C3 plants and photosythesis
        
        photosyntheses
        
        photoresperation
        
        C4
        
        spatial seperation w/ bundle sheath cells
        
        Cam Plants
        
        Temporal seperation w/ crasssulacean acid metabolis ()cam) to fix carbon
        
        least efficient
        
        least h20 loss
      - global phososythesis
        
        provides food, and O2 for almost all living organisms
        
        raising carbon dioxide may afffect plansts in various ways
        
        scientiosts
      - Chapter 8
        
        cell divisio and reproductionn
        
        cell division
        
        sexual reproduction
        
        asexual repri=uducition
        
        can be affected by many factors
        
        density dependent
        
        if its too crouded cells stop dividing
        
        anchorage-dependent
        
        growth factor
        
        pdgf
        
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        nutrition
        
        cancer cells
        
        uncontrolled cell division
        
        producews a mass of cells tumor
        
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        binary fission
        
        as the cell receicates its single chromosmome
        
        the plasma ebrane pinches inward
        
        more cell wall is made which eventually divides the parent cell into to daughter cells.
        
        copies move apart
        
        the large complex chromosomes
        
        centromere
        
        chromatids
        
        https://youtu.be/mBq1ULWJp_M?si=A3LQ48kdya_yqLzb
        
        https://youtu.be/gcz1FOWw0Cg?si=AwVBs9ZYAb6eTAQH
        
        https://youtu.be/zrKdz93WlVk?si=aadQ8O99Lpd5nHZJ
        
        the cell cycle
        
        ordered sequence of events that extends
        
        interphase
        
        G1 cell is grwing first stage gap fase making things
        
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        G2
        
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        2 phase S phase interphase, dna sythesis, copdty of dna
        
        miotic spindle
        
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        the eukkaryoticcell cyclecdell cycle
        
        charmatin
        
        loose threads in nucleus
        
        chromosome
        
        packed jup form of dna that cell uses for compacting dna when it needs to be moved around.
        
        centromere
        
        hand that keeps ot togehter.
        
        chrmomtids
        
        indivisual strand of dna sigle piece fropm start to end.
        
        after duplication they are identical
        
        chromosomes are mached in homologuus pairs
        
        somatin cells
        
        locus
        
        homologous chromosomes
        
        chromosomes that havethe dsame basic information
        
        same gene different versions
        
        gametes have sinlde se of cdhromosomes
        
        somatic
        
        diploid
        
        two sets of chromosomes
        
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        gametes
        
        haploid
        
        half the amound
        
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        meosis reduces the chromosome number from diolploid to haploid
        
        PMAT
        
        Meiosis ii
        
        telophase 11
        
        anaphase 11
        
        pulls sister away
        
        metaphase 11
        
        lined un sinclg e file half the amoutn of chromotins in this process.
        
        prophase 11
        
        nuclier envolope didnt have enought time to go to chomotin
        
        Meiosis 1
        
        anaphase 1
        
        sister chromodits are still together
        
        metaphase 1
        
        big and little chromosomes
        
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        telophase 1
        
        turn into two daughter cells
        
        prophase 1
        
        crossing over
        
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        differneceds ton between meiosism and mitosis
        
        mitosis
        
        meiosis
        
        purpose
        
        divisions
        
        of daughter cells
        
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        groth tissue repair asexual; reproduction
        
        1
        
        2
        
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        sexual reproduction
        
        2
        
        4
        
        haploid
        
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        Chapter 9
        
        Mendels Law
        
        Hippocratess idea of pangenes
        
        problems
        
        Reproductive cells are not composed of particles from somatic cells
        
        changes in somatic cells do not influence gametes
        
        some traits that disappear in one genearation can reappear in later generations.
        
        Heredity
        
        transition of trait from one generation to the next.
        
        Genetics
        
        gregor Mendels and peas
        
        traits and characteristics
        
        true breeding
        
        hybrids
        
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        :
        
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        laws of genetics mendels 4 hypotheses and 2 laws
        
        for each character, an organism ingerits two lleles of a gene, one from each parent.
        
        an orgnism that has two different alleles for a gege is said to be heterozygou for that gene
        
        an organism that has two idetical alleles for a gene is said to be homozygous for that gene
        
        if the two alleles of an inherited pair differ, then one determines the organisms appearance and is called the dominant allele and the other has no noticeable affect on the organisms appearance and is called the recessive allele.
        
        there are alternative versions of genes (called alleles) that count for variatons in inherited charaters.
        
        a sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because allele pairs separate (segregate) from each other during the production of gametes this statement is called the law of segregation
        
        punnent squares
        
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        rule of multiplecation
        
        and
        
        multiplicastion
        
        or
        
        addition
        
        pedigrees
        
        genetic traits can be tracked through family pedigrees
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gd09V2AkZv4
        
        dominant trait
        
        wild type
        
        polydactyly
        
        hypercholesterolemia
        
        huntingtons
        
        achondroplasia
        
        recessive
        
        mutant typoe
        
        albinism
        
        sickle sell
        
        cystic fibrosis
        
        genetic testing technology
        
        blood tests
        
        fetoscoopy *
        
        ultrasound
        
        chorionic villus sampling
        
        amnniocentesis *
        
        new born screening
        
        genetic testing
        
        incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes
        
        Variation son Mendels law
        
        incomplete dominance
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJHGfbW55l0
        
        codominace
        
        ABO Blood group
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9O5JQqlngFY
        
        IA & IB ARE codimant
        
        Pleiotrophy
        
        sickly cell
        
        a homozygous sickle cell individual
        
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        polygenic inheritance
        
        humssn skin color
        
        nature vs nurture
        
        both play a role in genetics
        
        the chromosome theorty of inheritance
        
        chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis
        
        genes occypy soecific loci (posiions )on chrimosomes
        
        violations of medelian genetics
        
        linked genes
        
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        sex chromosomes and sex linked genes
        
        Autosomes vs. sex chromosomes
        
        haplo - diploid sysytem
        
        temperature dependendt sex determination
        
        sex linked gene
        
        x linked genes
        
        can chage based in the famale is hetero or homo if the male is dominant or ressecive.
        
        most x linked human disorders are due t recessice alleles and thefore are seen mostly in males
        
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        study male lineages w/Y chromosomes
        
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        chapter 10!
        
        the structure of the genetic material
        
        Genetic material
        
        nucleic acids
        
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        protenns 20 AAs
        
        Macromolecule: nucleic acids
        
        Polynucleotides
        
        monomers: nucletides
        
        2 types
        
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        the flow of gentiec information from DNA to RNA to protein
        
        transcription
        
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        gene
        
        not all enzymes are protiens
        
        not all protiens are enzymes
        
        niot all genens make protiens
        
        triplet code
        
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        translation
        
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        https://youtu.be/oefAI2x2CQM?si=9zeY1_h84bfdkTeo
        
        transcription
        
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        the genetics of viruses and bacteria
        
        lytic cycle
        
        prophage
        
        RNA Viruses
        
        corrona
        
        viruses
        
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        bacteria
        
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        DNA replication
        
        specific paring
        
        both directions simotaneously
        
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        https://youtu.be/Qqe4thU-os8?si=Aibvk36OEm7zIuMg
  - - - control of gene expression
        
        Gene
        
        regulatory protiens
        
        ooperons
        
        inducible vs repressible operons
        
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        activators
        
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        https://youtu.be/h_1QLdtF8d0?si=phYYrXBOYFROMO-W
        
        gene regulation
        
        cells differwntiate
        
        Histones plus dna to the nucleosomes
        
        x chromosome inactivation
        
        Barr body
        
        inactive x chromosome shtat packed tighter than a chromosoema dnshoved off tot ehs idme and is very clkear undna microscope.
        
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        packed up dna no expression
        
        Epigenetic inheritance
        
        facts
        
        Functional RNAs
        
        functional rnas
        
        mirRNAs
        
        degradencompleting mRNAs
        
        Block translation of partially compelmenting mRNAs
        
        https://youtu.be/j-zTy6vOP3M?si=pb9R8JmB9PAeb8hk
        
        siRNAs
        
        Formation of centromere
        
        methylation for gamete formation
        
        RNA interference of translation
        
        https://youtu.be/QLhiG7D2UT8?si=Jpj8_dqr1iVCHtJ6
        
        another small fraction is genes for rRna and tRNA
        
        Junk DNA
        
        1.5 % human genome codes for protiens
        
        Homeotic gene
        
        animal develope=ment controlled by series of rnas and protiens
        
        nucleic acid hybridization
        
        DNA microarray
        
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        https://youtu.be/0qoqzErrae4?si=sZbM6Q8OTGWclTCZ
        
        cell signaling
        
        tellone cell to anither scell to turn on its dna tanscription of a specific geene
      - https://youtu.be/k50yMwEOWGU?si=CDkBqkWxQTE5Dfdc
      - clonging of plants and animals
        
        totipotent
        
        regeneration
        
        clone
        
        plants
        
        fragment and putting them in a proper envoirnment to grow and can grow on ther iwn
        
        animals
        
        nuclear transplantation
        
        therapeutic Cloning
        
        adult stem cells
        
        embryonic stem cells
        
        https://youtu.be/5ffl-0OYVQU?si=CdM4lIRd5DTsvM3e
      - the gentic basis of cancer
        
        cancer
        
        Proto-oncogene to oncogene
        
        https://youtu.be/pOyKFgGKmHE?si=F9iCo3jLGSnTsbDU
        
        tumor suppressor genes
        
        cancers result froma series of gentic changes
    - - gene edditing and cloning
        
        biotechnology
        
        GMOs
        
        Recombinant DNA
        
        dna technology
        
        Gene cloining
        
        bacterial plasmids (vector) w/ recombinant DNA
        
        restriction enzymes and restriction fragments
        
        dna ligase
      - nucleic acid probe
      - complementary DNA (cdna)
        
        https://youtu.be/VT_nNVO95eI?si=JS5CRTv5c4cz5ZJv
        
        dna in nucleousmrna in cytoplasm
        
        test tube
        
        reverse transcriptase
        
        additional reverse transcriptase sythesis of new dna strand
        
        sdna stand begins synthesis
        
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      - crispr-cas9
        
        aystem allows resurchers to target a specific gene in a living cell for removal or editing .
        
        https://youtu.be/qc6xgb4VXl0?si=pxkqoKMtDZLiwb1I
    - - genetticly modified organisms
        
        lots of vegetables and fruites to redue diseases and produce better friuts and sich with less seeds and others.
      - transgenic organisms
        
        8 different genes from different species or at least 2
      - vaccines
        
        genetic tecniques used to interact with virises to keep us from harm
    - - polymerase chain reaction (PCR) w/primers
        
        a method that taes advantage of the dna. using primers to find missing parts. usiing a dna polymerase into making copies by heating up our dna breaking the hydrogen boned exposing them to the polymerase and stick to build the coplimentary sequence.
        
        https://youtu.be/a5jmdh9AnS4?si=Q-mFBiC7Duck-r9p
        
        https://youtu.be/CDw4WPng2iE?si=7LcMKS_FnhmbT3Mz
        
        https://youtu.be/hO3mTqrEeq8?si=leKSUEUCwaL-mKqd
        
        https://youtu.be/ZDZUAleWX78?si=zZJA0KzlY6Rrq2Ft
        
        seperate dna by size negativly charged to pull dna throught the gel.
    - - genomics studying and comparison of sets of genes
      - human Genome prodject HGP
      - whole genome shotgun sequences
      - bioformatics
        
        intesection of computer sicnec ena dhow genomes can evolve intom another genomes gene.
      - proeomics
        
        studying the protiens in the genes and how they cnage of are used differently in their parts
- - - - organelles
      - genetic control
      - manufacturing distributi=ion, and breakdown of materials
      - energy processing
        
        mitocondria
        
        chloroplasts
      - supoport, movement and communication
        
        cytosomes
  - - - dna messanger rna protien synthesis
      - nucleolus
      - chromatin
      - chromosome
    - - make sprotiens from dna directions from dna
  - - - export pf molecules
      - synthesis
      - distribution
      - storgage
    - - plasma membrane
      - vesicles
        
        transport
    - - network of tubes and sacs
        
        attached t the nucleus
    - - synthesized lipids an processes toxins
      - braks down toxins
        
        alchohol exaple from lecture
      - makes lipiods
    - - produces membranes
      - surface ridosomes make membrane and secretory protiens
    - - processes and sends out ER products to other organelles or cell surface .
    - - houses enzymes that break down ingested substances and damaged organelles.
    - - large vesicles w/variety of functions
      - food vacules
      - contractile
      - large central vaule
      - mostly full of water.
    - - control center of the cell
      - dna protien sythesis
      - nucleous
        
        ribosimesa re made out of rna
      - chromitin
        
        made of the genes od dna
        
        chromosome
  - - - cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells
      - Releases CO2
      - produces ATP
      - uses O2
      - 2 internal compartments.
        
        mitochondria matrix
        
        ribosomes
        
        mny enzymes
        
        mitochondrial matrix
        
        intermembrane space,
    - - photosythesis: conversion of light energy to the chemical energy
      - photosytheses organelles of plants and alae
      - Endosymbiont Theory
        
        mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes.
        
        endossybiosis
        
        two organisms working together.
        
        1.) m&c make themselves (reproduce
        
        2.) M&C have dna ribosmeslike bacteria
        
        3.)n m&c have extra membranes inner looks bacteria like outer looks eukarya like
  - - - anchorage and movment or organelles
      - amoeboid movment
      - maintenance of cell shape
    - - pseudopodia
      - muscle cell contraction
      - cytoplasmic streaming
      - siupport shape
    - - shape support my cells
      - tracks for motor protiens
      - seperate chromosomes for cell division
      - cilia and flagela
        
        locomotion
        
        eukaryotic
      - centrosomes and cetriolles
      - only in animal cells.
      - hollow component
    - - fix organelle position
      - permanent framwork
      - reinforce shape
  - - - glycoprotins and integrins
      - three tyopes of inctions
        
        gap
        
        pass small molecules across cellls
        
        anchoring
        
        need to be kept together stretchy like skin
        
        tight
        
        dont digest yourself
    - - binds tissue cells together
      - suports plasma membrane
      - communicates with sytoskeleton
  - - - magnification
      - resolution
      - contrast
      - types of microscopes
        
        light microscope
        
        1000
        
        resoulution 0.2 um
        
        stains and fluresent light phase contrast
        
        electron microscopes
        
        magnification 10,000,000x
        
        resolution 2 nm
        
        heavy metals or gold
- - - - 2.1 rganisms are composed of elements usually combined into compounds
        
        matter =space and mass
      - elements
        
        92 natural
        
        25 for Human life
        
        4 96% weight most livigng organisms.
      - coumpunds
        
        fixed ratio
        
        2+ elements
      - 2.3 atoms consist of protons, neutons, and electrons
        
        ech element cinsist of one kind of atom
        
        smallest unit of matter with elements propeties
        
        three relevant subatomic prticls
        
        electrons
        
        neutons
        
        protons
        
        mass number = sum of #protons aand neutons
        
        mass of proton =1
        
        mass or proton =1
        
        mass of electron =0
        
        isotopes
        
        same number or protons and electrons but thenumber of nuetrons is didifferent. going to add moreneutrons.
        
        Carbon 14 is radioactive
        
        2..4 radioactiveisotopes can help or harm us.
        
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        atomic # exuals # of protons
  - - - share gain lose electrons.
      - results in attractions +chemical bonds
        
        covalent bonds
        
        shared electrons, non polar
        
        no charge
        
        electrons pulled electromagnetically atom are polar
        
        hydrogen bond held together polar covelent bonds
        
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        shared covalent bonds
        
        negative chagr due to being electronegative
        
        ionic bonds
        
        ions: atom or molecule with an electrcal charge from gain/loss of 1+ electrons
    - - matther not created or destroyed just rearranged.
      - reactants to products
      - makes and breaks chemical bonds
  - - - cohersion
        
        sticking to iself, water sticking to water austernaut video
      - water is a polarly covaletly bonded molecule
      - adhesion coin sticking to water
      - surface tension
        
        difficult to break the surface of the liquid
    - - moderates temp changes
        
        kinetic
        
        more motion = explosion
        
        hot cup coffee ot hand
        
        temperature
        
        increases H-bonds evapotate cooling
        
        thermal energy
        
        coffee faster = more themal energy slow means less
    - - ice less dence than water h bonds
    - - veratile solvent
        
        solute + solvent = solution
        
        water is polar good at disolving
- - - - involved carbon and often hydrogen
        
        valence electrons can conbine with 4 other elements.
        
        rings: carbon skeletions may be arraged in rings(in the abbreviated ring structured each corner representd a carbon and its attached hydrogens.)
        
        branching carbon skeletons may be unbranched or branched
      - Isomers
        
        have the same molecular formula but different structures.
      - hydrocarbons
        
        are composed of only carbon and hydrogen
      - organic compounds properties depend on
        
        atoms attached to carbon skeleton
        
        size and shape of carbon backbone
        
        need to know, what is attahce dto the carbon moloecule.
        
        need to know
        
        Hydrophilic Functional groups give organic molecules specific chemical properties.
        
        6 important chemical groups
        
        carboxyl
        
        amino
        
        Carbonyl
        
        phosphate
        
        Hydroxyl
        
        methyl
      - 4 classes of biological macromolocules
        
        Polymers
        
        make with dehydration reactions
        
        to build new covalent bonds.
        
        also have to break water back inot oh and h use it to breka the covlent bonds
        
        hydrolysis
        
        braking to make water or using water to break bonds
        
        realses water
        
        make spolymer
        
        monomers
        
        often large size
    - - monomers= monosacccharide "simple sugars"
        
        most end with ose & enzymes with -ase
        
        formula is a multiple of CH2O, 3-7 Cs
        
        @ monosaccharides (monomers) = Disaccaride
        
        dehydration reaction
      - Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units
        
        starch and glycogen are storage polysaccharides
        
        cellulose
        
        structural found in plant cell walls
        
        chaitin
        
        component of exoskeleton and fungal cell walls.
        
        glysogen found in animals
    - - hydrophobis
        
        primarily carbon and hydrogen (non polar)
      - not large macromolecules or polymers
      - 3 important types discussed
        
        phospholipids
        
        steroids
        
        fats
        
        triglycerides consisit of glycerol linked to three fatty acids
        
        trans have a double bond
        
        unsaturated fats have a cis double bond
        
        saturated fats, consistant
        
        functions
        
        long term energy storage
        
        hydroginated fats are bad for you
      - phospholipid
        
        composed are components of cell mebrane
        
        hyrdophilic head
        
        polar heads
        
        hydrophobic tails
        
        non polar tails
        
        Steroids
        
        include cholesterol and some hormones
        
        anabolic steroids
        
        synthetic variants of testosterone
        
        cholesterol
        
        is acommon component in amila, cell mabranes including sex.
    - - involved in most dynamic functions in the body very diverse
        
        10,000 + in your body
      - polymer
        
        protien/polypeptide
      - monomer
        
        amino acid monomer
        
        20 types
        
        denaturation
        
        shaoe no functiion
        
        sequence shaoe function
        
        have central carbon and
        
        carboxyl group
        
        h atom
        
        r group
        
        distinguishes 20 amino acids, each with specific properties.\
        
        properties
        
        non polar r groups or side chains are hydrophobic
        
        polar
        
        1 more item...
        
        amino group
        
        monomers linked together by deydration
        
        peptide bond
        
        creaates chain of amino acids = polypptide
      - some of the functions
        
        signaling protiens such as hormeones
        
        storage protiens.
        
        transport things around the cells
      - wrong shape can cause problems.
        
        sikl e cell anemia
        
        bovine spongiform
        
        kuru
        
        chronic wasting disease
        
        alzheimenrs and parkinsins
        
        clumps of misifolded ptoeims contributing to death of brain cells.
      - four evels of structures.
        
        secondary
        
        coiling or folding of th chain stabalized by hydrogen bonds
        
        teriary structure
        
        three dimensional shape of a polypeptide, resulting from interqctions amoung r groups
        
        primary structures
        
        amino acids in its polypeptide chain
        
        quaterary structure
        
        protiens made of more than one polypeptide
    - - polymers
        
        polynucleotides
      - monomers
        
        nucleotides
        
        phosphate group
        
        nitrogenous base
        
        4 dna
        
        adenine
        
        cytosine
        
        thymine
        
        deoxyribose as sugar
        
        Guanine
        
        4 rna
        
        adenine
        
        cytosine
        
        uracil
        
        ribose nitrogenous base
        
        guanine
        
        bases are complementary
        
        A & T DNA
        
        A & U (RNA)
        
        G & C (DNA & RNA)
        
        sugar
        
        ribose
        
        deoxyribose
        
        functions
        
        stores information: gene, chromosomes
        
        DNA
        
        used to transmit and use that information: gene expression
        
        RNA
- - - - thermal energy
        
        adding or taking away heat.
    - - chemical energy
        
        energy stored in a chemical structure
  - - - two laws
        
        second law
        
        energy transfers of transformations increase disorder or entropy, with some energy being lost as heat
        
        1st law
        
        law of energy conservation: energy can change form but cannot be created or destroyed
      - the collection of matter that is being studies is the SYSTEM
        
        everything arounds it it=s called the surroundings,
        
        isolated is where no energy or matter is being exhanged
        
        open doesmhumsna are oipen systems changing thingsa round us.
  - - - release energy
    - - requires energy and yeild products in rich potential energy
        
        ex photosynthesis because plants are going to make glucose from carbon dioxide and water, restof the energy comes from sunlight.
    - - metabolic
      - energy coupling
      - metabolism
      - https://youtu.be/23ZzI6WZS28?si=T2fBQfUwaxfdub-Q
        
        phosphorylation
        
        https://youtu.be/eJ9Zjc-jdys?si=AOvtXMFCDYJHkLDv
- - - - barrier to overcome before you can start the raction, it activates the energy to start the chemical reaction
    - - active site
        
        location for the enzymes
      - induced fit
      - substrate
      - optimal condition for enzymes
        
        ph
        
        temperature
        
        cofactors
        
        coenzymes
  - - - noncompetative
      - competative
- - - - Mosaic of diverse protiens
      - Plasma Membrane has slectice Permeability
        
        certian things can permiate throught: hybrophobic, or small enough
        
        the protiens have various functions
        
        chanel transport protien
        
        diffusion of small nonpolar molecules
        
        receptor protien
        
        glysoprotien
        
        attachment protien
        
        junction protien
        
        active transport protien
        
        how things get through?
        
        Diffusion
        
        tendency of particles to spread out evenly in an available space.
        
        https://youtu.be/jhszFBtBPoI?si=a9O02149AwtqFZ4-
        
        when water is diffusing across a selectivly permeable membrane
        
        1 more item...
        
        Facilitated Diffusion
        
        2 more items...
        
        active transport
        
        5 more items...
        
        passive transport
        
        no energy required to pass through
        
        1 more item...
      - Fluid Phospholipid bilayer
        
        spontaneously self assemble into simple membranes
        
        https://youtu.be/qBCVVszQQNs?si=nXSkGKjihqFeE6Hd