[3] acculturation (Lucas, 1998;Manly et al., 2004; Manly et al., 1998a; Manly et al., 1998b), literacy (Manly, Touradji, Tang, & Stern, 2003), test-wiseness (Manly et al., 2002; Scruggs & Lifson, 1985), and racial socialization (e.g., stereotype threat; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995). Factors such as socioeconomic status may interact with race to influence brain development or functioning because those of lower socioeconomic class may have poorer nutrition and access to health care.