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LIFE SPAN AND DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY MIND MAP, Early childhood, The…

- - - - Assimilation incorporating new information or experiences into existing knowledge or schemes
      - Accomodation adjusting existing schemes to take in new information and experiences
    - - Equilibrium a new balance of thought when the cognitive conflict was resolved through assimilation and accomodation
      - Disequilibrium cognitive conflict; when the child encounters inconsistencies and counterexamples in existing schemes
    - - Schemes are action/mental representations that organize and manage knowledge
        
        Behavioral Scheme physical activities that are characterized in infants (sucking, grasping, crying, etc)
        
        Mental Schemes cognitive activities that develop in childhood and beyond, including strategies and plans for solving problems
  - - - Changing the level of support over the course of teaching sessions to fit the child's current performance level
      - Dialogue is very important in scaffolding
    - - Language plays a big role in cognitive development during the early ages
      - Private speech language of self-regulation
        
        Self talk (3-7 y.o.) transition from external to internal
        
        Inner speech
  - - - Realistic
      - Pragmatic
      - Reflective
      - Relativistic Thinking
      - Provisional
    - - Adults begin to realize the role of their emotions in thoughts and thinking
      - Negative emotion may cause distortion
- - - - Arnold Gesell (1934) believed motor development comes through the unfolding of a genetic plan (maturation)
      - Dynamic systems theory believes infants assemble motor skills for perceiving & acting (Thelen & Smith, 2006)
      - New behavior is the result of many converging factors
      - Nature
        
        Readiness/maturation of nervous system
        
        Body's physical maturation and possibilities for movement
      - Nurture
        
        The goal that motivates the infant
        
        Environmental supports
    - - Why do infant develop reflexes?
        
        Govern newborn movements
        
        Provides opportunity to learn
        
        Allow adaptation to environment
        
        Genetically carried survival mechanisms
      - Types of Reflexes in Infant
        
        Sucking
        
        stimulus: an object placed in its mouth
        
        allows infant to get nourishment before it starts to associate a nipple with food
        
        Grasping
        
        stimulus: when something touches an infant's palms
        
        response: grasping tightly
        
        Rooting
        
        stimulus: the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched
        
        response: infant turns its head toward the side that was touched to find something to suck
        
        Moro
        
        stimulus: a sudden, intense noise or movement
        
        response: the newborn gets startled; usually arches its back, throws its head back, and flings out its arm and legs. Also rapidly closes its arms and legs to the center of the body
    - - involves finely tuned movements as to doing any task that requires finger dexterity
      - Infancy
        
        the ability to reach and grasp as an important milestone of this skill
        
        Palmer grasp -gripping with the whole hands
        
        Pincer grasp (at the end of first year) - grasping small objects using thumb and forefinger
      - Childhood & Adolescence
        
        3 y.o. - ability to stack/balance objects
        
        Precision increases as they grow older
        
        desire to build projects with adult guidance to complete
        
        linked to increased myelination
        
        Hands coordination improve
        
        shows manipulative skills of adults at the age of 12
        
        musical instruments, fine quality crafts
        
        Researchers found that children's gross & fine motor skills are associated with cognitive functions
      - Adult
        
        skills may decline in middle & late adulthood
        
        dexterity decreases
        
        healthy adults still have good functional skills
        
        pathological conditions may result in weakness of paralysis of hands
    - - Postural control is foundations for gross motor skills development
        
        2 m.o - able to sit when supported
        
        6-7 m.o -able to sit on their own
        
        8-9 m.o - learn to pull themselves up
        
        10-12 m.o - can stand alone
      - Across Life Span
        
        2nd year
        
        motor activity is vital to a child's development through their adventures
        
        parent/caregiver should encourage and guide the child's development
        
        Childhood
        
        mastery of gross motor skill becomes source of self-confidence around 3 y.o
        
        4-5 y.o. becomes more adventurous
        
        movements are a lot smoother and more coordinated in middle and late childhood
        
        Adolescence
        
        improvement of the skills
        
        Adulthood
        
        peak physical performance is before the age of 30
        
        after age of 30, biological functions decline
        
        Late Adulthood
        
        decreased in activity level linked to biological & psychological health
        
        Natural aging > gradual deterioration
        
        effects from lifestyle habits & patterns
        
        physical activities has more positive impact than educational preventions
  - - - happens when information interacts with sensory receptors-- the eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin.
      - Touch & Pain
        
        newborns respond to touch and can feel pain
        
        the pain threshold occurs at lower level of stimulation
        
        tactile sensation - activating of nerve signals beneath the skin's surface informing the body of texture, temperature and other touch-sensations
        
        regular gentle tactile stimulation may have positive developmental outcomes
      - Smell & Taste
        
        newborns can differentiate odors
        
        decline in sensitivity to odors may occur starting in the twenties
        
        sensitivity to taste is present even before birth through amniotic fluid
        
        smell and taste perception are connected
    - - the interpretation of what is sensed
      - Visual Perception
        
        Infancy
        
        Visual acuity - how well can infants see
        
        birth - the nerves and muscles and lens of the eye are still
        developing
        
        the newborn's vision is estimated to be 20/40 (Snellen chart); an object 20 feet away is only as clear to the newborn as it would be if it were 240 feet away from an adult with normal visions (20/20)
        
        6 months - average visual acuity is 20/40
        
        Perceptual constancy - perceiving a relatively stable and unchanging world
        despite the fact that sensory information is changing dramatically.
        
        Size constancy - recognizing that an object remains the same even though
        the retinal image of the object changes as you move toward or away from it
        
        Babies as young as 3 months of age show size constancy. However, their
        ability is not full-blown
        
        Continues to develop until 10 or 11 years old.
        
        Shape constancy - an object remains the same shape even though its orientation to us changes
        
        Color vision - improves over time
        
        4-8 weeks: infants can discriminate some colors
        
        4 months: have color preferences that mirror those of adults
        
        The changes reflect maturation. Experience, however, is also
        necessary for color vision to develop normally.
        
        Depth perception - the ability to perceive depth based on cues
        
        Gibson & Walk (1960) constructed a miniature cliff
        covered by glass.
        
        Placed infants on the edge and coaxed them to
        crawl onto the glass.
        
        Most infants would not crawl out on the glass, choosing instead to remain on the shallow side -> indication that they could perceive depth.
        
        Childhood
        
        3-4 years: children become increasingly efficient at detecting the
        boundaries between colors (such as red and orange).
        
        4-5 years: their eye muscles usually are developed enough that they
        can move their eyes efficiently across a series of letters
        
        Many preschool children are farsighted, unable to see close up as
        well as they can see far away
        
        First grade children can focus their eyes and sustain their
        attention effectively on close-up objects
        
        Adulthood & Aging
        
        Visual decline in late adulthood linked to cognitive decline and having fewer social contacts and engaging in less challenging social/leisure activities
        
        Presbyopia - decline of eye's ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina
        
        Visual processing speed declines in older adults
        
        older individuals take
        longer to recover their vision when going from a well-lighted room to semidarkness
        
        Color vision also may decline because of the yellowing
        of the lens of the eye.
        
        Depth perception typically decline
        
        Diminishing sensitivity to contrasts and reduced tolerance for glare.
      - Hearing Perception
        
        Infancy
        
        fetus hears in the last months before birth
        
        cannot hear soft sounds well
        
        less sensitive to pitch; sensitive to human speech
        
        can distinguish general direction of sound origination
        
        Adolescence & Adulthood
        
        Most adolescence have excellent hearing
        
        loud/maximum volume music as risks for hearing loss
        
        Quality of hearing decline at around age 40
        
        Males lost sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than females
        
        due to occupation?
        
        Treatments: hearing aids and cochlear implants
    - - ability to relate and integrate information about two or more sensory modalities (e.g. vision & hearing)
      - exists in newborns, strengthen with experiences within the first year
    - - Nature are referred as nativist
      - empiricists - those who emphasize learning & experience
      - perceptual development acknowledges both the influence of nature, nurture, and a developing sensitivity to information
- - - - Infancy
      - Early childhood
      - Middle and Late childhood
- - - - To what extent heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) influence intelligence has been debated considerably.
        
        Genetic influences (thru identical twins study)
        
        A research showed an approximate .15 difference in similarity of intelligence has been found, with a higher correlation for identical twins (.75) and a lower correlation for fraternal twins (.60)
        
        A research review concluded that there may be more than 1,000 genes that affect intelligence, each possibly having a small influence on an individual’s intelligence. However, researchers have not been able to identify the specific genes that contribute to intelligence.
        
        Environmental influences -> Flynn effect (worldwide increase in intelligence test scores over a short timeframe)
        
        According to a research, The more parents communicated with their children, the higher the children’s IQs.
        
        Research found that a 12-18 point increase in IQ was found when children had been adopted from low-income families into middle- and upper-income families.
        
        Schooling influences intelligence (obviously), as it was found that when large groups of children receive no formal education for an extended period, it results in lower intelligence for that group of children
        
        American children seem to be getting smarter. 1932 avg IQ was 100; 1997 avg IQ was 120. Peak example of Flynn effect.
        
        Researchers are continuing to find support for the Flynn effect in the 21st century
        
        Epigenetic - The epigenetic approach emphasizes the ongoing, bidirectional interaction of heredity and environment.
    - - Group comparisons in intelligence can involve cultures and ethnic groups.
      - Cross-cultural comparisons: cultures vary in the way they describe what it means to be intelligent.
        
        People in Western cultures tend to view intelligence in terms of reasoning and thinking skills, whereas people in Eastern cultures see intelligence as a way for members of a community to successfully engage in social roles.
        
        Values of a culture may influence the direction in which a child develops.
        
        Practical and academic intelligence can develop independently and may even conflict with each other.
      - Cultural Bias in Testing: Many of the early intelligence tests were culturally biased, favoring people who were from urban rather than rural environments, middle socioeconomic status rather than low socioeconomic status, and non-Latino White rather than African American ethnicity.
        
        Members of minority groups who do not speak English or who speak non-standard English are at a disadvantage in trying to understand questions framed in standard English.
        
        Stereotype threat - Anxiety regarding whether one’s behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group.
        
        For example, when African Americans take an intelligence test, they may experience anxiety about confirming an old stereotype that Blacks are “intellectually inferior.”
        
        Research supporting this specific stereotype threat: African American students do more poorly on standardized tests if they perceive that they are being evaluated. If they think the test doesn’t count, they perform as well as White students
        
        Culture-fair tests - Intelligence tests that are
        designed to avoid cultural bias. Two types have been developed.
        
        The first includes questions that are familiar to people from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds.
        
        For example, a child might be asked how a bird and a dog are different, on the assumption that virtually all children are familiar with birds and dogs. (so basically general knowledge questions testing schemas)
        
        The second type of culture-fair test contains no verbal questions
      - Ethnic comparisons. I am not gonna be writing more. I am tired.
  - - - A general consensus being along the line of intelligence being the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new experiences.
        With The primary components of intelligence being the cognitive processes of thinking and memory
        
        A couple approach to intelligence:
        
        Information processing: emphasises how individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it.
        
        Social contexts: Vygotsky's; emphasises the social contexts of learning and constructing knowledge through social interaction.
      - The problem with intelligence is quantifying and measuring it is not as objective or as simple as age, height, weight, etc. The only method of observing, recording, and measuring intelligence is through subjective means; indirectly and via our own interpretations.
        
        The difference lies in the concept of individual differences and assessment.
      - Intelligence has no exact definition and is often interpreted and defined differently by many psychologists and scientists alike.
    - - BINET Test:
        
        Mental age (MA) - individual's level of mental development relative to others.
        
        Chronological age (CA) - age from birth.
        
        Intelligence quotient (IQ):
        (MA : CA) x 100 Avg. IQ = 100
        
        can be applied to individuals from age 2 yo-adult.
        
        BOTH TESTS MEASURE GENERAL INTELLIGENCE; GENERALISED INTELLIGENCE FOR WHOLE POPULATION
        
        Even though they have limitations, tests of intelligence are among psychology’s most widely used tools. To be effective, they should be used in conjunction with other information about an individual. For example, an intelligence test alone should not determine whether a child is placed in a special education or gifted class. The child’s developmental history, medical background, performance in school, social competencies, and family experiences should be taken into account as well.
        
        i hate coggle i cant make the image bigger this is the stanford-binet iq distributions i hate this sm.
        
        The distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal curve. Most of the population falls in the middle range of scores.
      - WECHSLER Test:
        
        assess individuals' verbal abilities.
        
        Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)
        
        Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fifth Edition (WISC-V) for children and adolescents of 6-16 yo.
        
        Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence - Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV) for children 2 yrs 6 months - 7 yrs 7 months.
    - - The use of a single score to describe how people perform on intelligence tests implies that intelligence is a general ability, a single trait.
      - STERNBERG proposed TRIARCHIC THEORY (three forms of intelligence which manifest and affect how students perform in diff ways.
        
        Analytical: comparing, evaluating, analysing.
        
        Creative: Having insights, sythesizing, and adapting in unique situations.
        
        Practical: performing everyday tasks and relating to the world. (eg.: social ability)
      - GARDNER's theory of multiple intelligences: Perceived as strengths in some situations, improved w experience. Prominent criticism: "multiple talents" rather than "multiple intelligence"
        
        Visual-Spatial
        
        Linguistic-Verbal
        
        Interpersonal (social skills)
        
        Intropersonal (understanding of the self)
        
        Logical-Mathematical
        
        Musical
        
        Bodily-Kinesthetic
        
        Naturalistic
        
        Existentialist
      - GOLEMAN's EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (the ability to identify and manage one's own emotions, as well as the emotions of others).
        
        ability to perceive and express emotion.
        
        Critics argue that emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence too far to be useful and has not been adequately assessed and researched.
    - - Researchers recently have found that a higher level of intelligence is linked to a distributed neural network in the frontal and parietal lobes.
      - To a lesser extent than the frontal/parietal network, the temporal and occipital lobes, as well as the cerebellum, also have been found to have links to intelligence.
      - The current consensus is that intelligence is likely to be distributed across brain regions rather than being localized in a specific region such as the frontal lobes
      - Research on the brain's role in intelligence has only supported what parts of the brain is active in certain processes, but cannot explain subjectivity and consciousness.
      - Keep in mind that both heredity and environment likely contribute to links between the brain and intelligence, including the connections we discussed between brain size and intelligence.
- - - - Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
      - Evolution and Life-Span Development
      - Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology
- - - - the sound system of a language; a phoneme is the smallest sound unit in a language
    - - the system of meaningful units involved in word formation
    - - the system that involves meaning of words and sentences.
    - - the system that involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences
    - - the system of using appropriate conversation and knowledge of how to effectively use language in context
  - - - pointing is considered to be an important index of the social aspects of language follows a specific developmental sequence: from pointing without checking on adult gaze to pointing while looking back and forth between an object and the adult (Begus & Southgate, 2012)
      - infants at high risk for autism spectrum disorder used fewer gestures than their counterparts who were at low risk for autism spectrum disorder (Choi & others, 2019)
      - Recognizing language sounds
        
        Long before they begin to learn words, infants can make fine distinctions among the sounds of the language.
        
        If the infant turns its head when the syllables change, the box lights up and the bear dances and drums, rewarding the infant for noticing the change.
    - - The infant’s first spoken word is a milestone eagerly anticipated by every parent. This event usually occurs between 10 and 15 months of age and at an average age of about 13 months.
      - Overextension is the tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning by going beyond the set of referents an adult would use.
      - Underextension is the tendency to apply a word too narrowly; it occurs when children fail to use a word to name a relevant event or object.
    - - Telegraphic speech is the use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.
  - - - most adulthood individuals maintain their language skills. Decrements in language may appear during late adulthood