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- - - - Lincoln's most famous speech, the Gettysburg Address (1863), following the decisive victory at the Battle of Gettysburg, redefined the war as a struggle for human equality ("that all men are created equal"): "a government of the people, by the people, for the people".
  - - - As a result, there is a continuous westward expansion, closely connected with the question of slavery. More and more states entered the Union, soon outnumbering the 13 original colonies, but whose main difference was whether they were "free states" or "slave states". Southern states defended slavery, but most northerners opposed it for moral and religious reasons. This balance of power and the debate over allowing slavery or not was one of the central issues leading up to the Civil War.
  - - - In December 1860, South Carolina became the 1st southern state to withdraw/secede from the Union, declaring itself an independent nation/government, and soon, 6 more states followed. These seceding states formed the Confederate States of America and adopted their own constitution, which explicitly protected slavery.
        
        The situation escalated when the Confederate forces demanded that Union troops evacuate Fort Sumter, a federal military installation in South Carolina. In April 1861, they fired upon the Federal troops stationed at Fort Sumter until the troops surrendered, initiating the first shots of the American Civil War.
        
        In response, Lincoln issued a call to arms for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion, which led additional southern states to secede and join the Confederacy.
  - - - Peace was restored in 1865 when the South, who was severely weakened and lacked food, ammunition, and the ability to reinforce, surrendered to the North. Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Grant’s Union Army at Appomattox Court House, where the two generals agreed to meet.
        
        The North had an industrial superiority, with facilities for manufacturing arms, ammunition, clothing and other supplies, as well as a network of railways in the North used for military advantage. Also, they outnumbered the South in states (23 vs 11) & population, (22 vs 9 million).
- - - - On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, formally declaring the Thirteen Colonies' independence from Britain and the formation of the United States of America. This document was entrusted to Thomas Jefferson and signed by the President of the Congress, John Hancock.
        
        The Congress also prepared the Articles of the Confederation (1777-1778), the first American constitution, which created a decentralized new government and established the US as a confederation of states —a system in which the states were largely independent but were bound together by a (weak) national congress.
        
        "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."
      - Thomas Jefferson (1776 & 1777/78)
        "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness"
    - - After some battles, the victory at the Battle of Saratoga was a turning point in the war, as well as a British disaster and humilliation, which conviced France to formally enter the war as an American ally.
        
        The conflict became more and more complicated for the British with France, Spain & The Netherlands taking advantage of this opportunity to declare war on Britain as well, as it became an international war. After several years of conflict, Britain surrendered at Yorktown in 1781 after being sieged by General George Washington by land and French forces by sea (the Siege/Battle of Yorktown). But it would not be till 1783 that a definitive treaty was signed which recognized the independence of the United States and established the boundaries of the new nation, the Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris by representatives of both parties.
      - George Washington (1777, 1781 & 1783)
  - - - After the Revolutionary War, the time came to set up the structures upon which a new nation would be erected. The severe economic and social problems that had become evident after the revolution resulted in the drawing up of the Constitution in 1787 (ratified in 1788, effective in 1789).
        
        The Constitution defined a central authority, but maintained the existing structure of state and local authority as a check on the central authority. It created a new government divided into 3 branches (separation of powers): legislative (the Congress), executive (the President) and judicial (headed by the Supreme Court).
        
        Also, a two-house Congress, consisting of an upper house, the Senate, with equal representation for each state (two representatives each), and a lower house, the House of Representatives (with proportional representation based on population). A unique characteristic of this document is the concern for protecting individual rights against the pretensions of authority.
        
        Another innovation was the addition of the first Ten Amendments (the Bill of Rights, 1791) to the federal constitution, which provided individual rights and freedoms by limiting the power of the federal government.
      - James Madison (1787, 1791)
    - - Presidents George Washington (commander of the Continental Army & 1st President), John Adams (negotiated the Treaty of Paris), Thomas Jefferson (writing the Declaration of Independence), James Madison (father of the Constitution) & Alexander Hamilton (never president, but Officer of the Continental Army & the 1st Secretary of the Treasury.) were the men who made possible the establishment of the new government.
        
        They did not always agree, of course. In the 1790s, Alexander Hamilton wanted an open war with France (this would break the terms of the Alliance they had signed with France in 1778). John Adams did not think it wise to go to war. Two parties emerged from the controversy, the Federalists (+aristocratic, +Britain, advocated for a strong, central federal government) & the Democratic Republicans (+democratic, +France: middle & lower classes, a decentralized federal government, preserving the rights/power of the states).
  - - - In the Seven Years' War fought between England & France from 1756 to 1763, France surrendered its vast North American empire to Britain in the Treaty of 1763 (Treaty of Paris). As a result of the war, due to the costs of financing military campaigns and maintaining a global empire, the British government incurred a massive debt. To address this issue/ongoing expenses, the British government implemented a series of taxation measures which, in turn, contributed to growing tensions that would lead up to the American revolution.
      - (1756-1763)
    - - A tariff (duty/tax) was proposed in 1764, the Sugar Act, on sugar, molasses & rum imported into America from the West Indies. The colonies fought against it and won, denying the right of the British Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent, who felt they were being unfairly taxed by a government in which they had no voice. In addition, they also needed to raise revenue after the war.
      - the West Indies (1764)
    - - The Stamp Act (1765), imposed on stamps affixed to newspapers, pamphlets, legal documents & other items, was particularly unpopular among the colonists, and it led to widespread protests & boycotts, as well as the famous slogan "No taxation without representation".
        
        The British government repealed/revoked the Act, but attached to the repeal was the Declaratory Act (1766) asserting the Parliament’s right to legislate for the colonies, thus showing that the British government still intended to assert its authority/ sovereignty over them (they are subordinated to, and dependent upon the imperial crown and parliament).
        
        In 1767 there was a new effort to raise revenue in America by imposing duties on certain imports /a variety of goods, such as glass, lead, paints, paper… through the Townshend Acts.
      - (1765, 1766 & 1767)
    - - Another element of discontent in the colonies was the presence of the British Army with headquarters, first in New York and then in Boston, resulting in ongoing tension and a growing separatist movement. There were many clashes between colonists and Redcoats; the worst being the Boston Massacre in 1770, where British soldiers, feeling threatened and under pressure, opened fire into the crowd of protesters, killing 5 of them.
      - (1770)
    - - Once again, the American response was tough and the British government had to retreat, repealing all taxes expect for a tax on tea to demonstrate that the Declaratory Act was being upheld. The Tea Act (1773), gave a monopoly on tea sales to the East India Company, which was in economic straits/difficulties, as American colonists could buy no tea unless it came from that company.
        
        The angry colonists's response was to dump/unload into the water a whole cargo/shipment of tea that had arrived to Boston Harbour. This episode is known in history as the Boston Tea Party (also 1773), as a great example of how far Americans were willing to go to speak out for their freedom.
      - East India Company (1773)
    - - George III, king of England, decided the only way to deal with this situation was by use of force. Parliament passed a series of punitive measures (such as the restriction of colonial self-government in Massachusetts) called The Intolerable Acts /The Coercive Acts. The result was a closer tie between the 13 colonies which had not existed before.
        
        On September 1, 1774 a Congress was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (the First Continental Congress), in order to boycott /prohibit the import, export & consumption of British goods and to declare the colonists’ right to self-govern themselves.
      - King George III (1774)
- - - - Born in Salem, Massachusetts (1804-1864), Nathaniel Hawthorne was deeply connected to the town's Puritan past. One of his ancestors, John Hathorne, was a judge during the Salem witch trials (an infamous event in American history marked by mass hysteria/paranoia & religious extremism: a series of prosecutions /trials of people/women accused of witchcraft & presence of the devil). This family history of guilt and persecution influenced many of his works, especially his themes of sin & morality. He even added a "w" to his last name to distance himself from his ancestors.
        
        Hawthorne’s father, a sea captain, died of yellow fever when Hawthorne was just 4 years old, leaving his mother to raise him and his siblings. This early loss & the resulting isolation he experienced contributed to his introspective & sometimes dark view of the world. During his early career, he was known for his reclusive tendencies. After graduating from college, he returned to Salem and lived with his mother. He spent over a decade in relative isolation, focusing on developing his writing skills & producing short stories.
        
        The Scarlet Letter catapulted him to fame. However, Hawthorne struggled with the burden of fame, finding public attention uncomfortable. Despite his literary success, his finances were often unstable. As he aged, Hawthorne’s health began to decline, and he struggled with depression & writer’s block. In the last years of his life, he attempted to write again but found it difficult. His death marked the end of an enigmatic, often solitary life marked by an intense exploration of the human psyche.
        
        Hawthorne was well-connected in literary circles. He was friends with Herman Melville, who was influenced & admired his works, and even dedicated Moby-Dick to him. Also, with the transcendentalists Ralph Waldo Emerson & Henry David Thoreau even though their more optimistic view of human nature contrasted with his emphasis on the human capacity for evil. Edgar Allan Poe was also his contemporary who recognized & praised his talent in the use of symbolism & his exploration of dark themes.
        
        The Scarlet Letter
        
        Summary
        
        It tells of the passionate, forbidden love affair between a sensitive, religious young man and the sensuous, beautiful townsperson. Set in Boston around 1650 during early Puritan colonization, the novel highlights the protestants' obsession with morality, sexual repression, guilt and confession, and spiritual salvation.
        
        Hester Prynne, a married woman, taken in adultery, is brought upon the stage that she may be punished by a public scandal/stigma. She was beautiful and young, and had been married to an old, difficult husband who had wandered away from her for a time, without giving signs of life. While living away from her husband in the Puritan New England, Hester has given birth to an illegitimate child, Pearl (thought by some to be the Devil’s child). Thus, she is considered a sinner, and the partner of her sin, though not of her punishment, is the saintly young minister of the Church, Arthur Dimmesdale, to whom she is attached. It is her fate/punishment to wear the letter "A" always worked on her dress to be seen by all men.
        
        In this context, the injured husband, Roger Chillingworth, comes by chance into the town to find his wife humiliated and made to wear the scarlet symbol. When the couple meets, Hester refuses to reveal the name of who has been the fellow sinner and father of her child.
        
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        Hester Prynne
        
        Arthur Dimmesdale
        
        Roger Chillingworth
        
        Pearl
        
        Interesting facts
        
        Preface: The Custom House
        
        First mass-produced book
        
        Symbolism: the letter "A"
        
        Critique of Puritanism
        
        Ambiguity
        
        The preface to The Scarlet Letter is called "The Custom House", a semi-autobiographical account of his experiences working there. While often overlooked, this section is crucial by providing the historical context for his discovery of a manuscript with the scarlet letter. He also uses the preface to acknowledge his ancestors' role in the early history of Salem.
        
        Published in 1850, The Scarlet Letter was an instant success, becoming one of the first mass-produced books in America, selling +2500 copies in the first two weeks. He was a relatively unknown writer until it made him famous & allowed him to devote entirely to writing, establishing him as one of the leading American writers of his time. Eventually it would be recognized one of the greatest works of fiction produced in America due to its pioneering psychological depth (its exploration of the internal struggles of his characters with sin & guilt), which was ahead of his time.
        
        Allegory & symbolism are found all through the story in the relationships between objects: a Red Cross, a Black Veil, and a Scarlet Letter, and what they come to signify. Hawthorne’s use of metaphors & similes show the reader what is happening below the surface. The emblematic letter ‘A’ that Hester is condemned to wear on her breast, as a mark that she violated the law of the colony, became a stigma of shame & public punishment. At first sight the letter reminds us that the ‘A’ is a signifier which means ‘shame’ whose signified is the never-written word ‘Adulterous’. In these cases, the stigmas were used in order to make the sin present in the sinner's everyday life. However, it has multiple meanings that evolve over time, and to Hester it becomes a powerful symbol of identity & female independence (by showing how Hester boldly makes her own decisions despite social expectations and is able to take care of herself), leading to personal growth, sympathy, and understanding of others.
        
        The novel was considered controversial & disruptive for its critical portrayal of Puritan society, challenging the moral norms of its time, and for his sympathetic portrayal of Hester Prynne (committing adultery buy depicted with strength & dignity) at a time when women were expected to adhere strictly to social norms. Hawthorne was very critical of the narrowness, intolerance and cruelty in Puritanism. The message that Hester gives the suffering women is not that they are “sinners” in need of redemption but that they are victims of a social order that violates nature.
        
        The novel's ending is famously ambiguous, leaving room for interpretation about the fates of its characters and about the ultimate meaning of the story. Do they truly find redemption?: (1) The reverend dies in Hester’s arms right after confessing, but only after years of hypocrisy & internal torment. (2) Hester returns to the colony & resumes wearing the letter "A" after living abroad for many years. (3) Pearl, who has been a symbol/reminder of her mother's sin, inherits a substantial fortune but her future is left ambiguous.
        
        (1850)
  - - - Stephen Crane was primarily a journalist, but also a novelist, short-story writer & poet. He explored life in the slums (ghettos), which gave him the material for his first novel at just the age of 22, Maggie: A girl of the Streets (1893). It was so shocking then that he published it under a pseudonym & at his own expense (self-published). Although it didn’t sell well initially, it’s now seen as a pioneering work of American naturalism, offering a gritty look at urban poverty.
        
        But it would not be until the publication of The Red Badge of Courage (1895) that he acquired international fame, becoming an instant classic and establishing his reputation as one of America’s great writers. The novel received ardent reviews in England & Europe, where literary critics admired its originality & realism.
        
        Despite his excellent reputation as a war writer (after The Red Badge of Courage), he had not lived through any war, but many veterans, who were amazed at his capability to imagine and reproduce the sense of actual combat, praised his work. His desire to see for himself whether he had guessed right when he wrote about it, and his fascination with death and danger took him to Greece (Greco-Turkish war) and Cuba (Spanish-American war) as a war correspondent. One of the most famous episodes in Crane’s life was his near-death experience during a shipwreck while traveling from Florida to Cuba to cover the Spanish-American War, which provided the inspiration for his celebrated short story The Open Boat, a tale of survival and the indifferent forces of nature.
        
        Crane spent his last years in Europe with his life-long partner, Cora Taylor. They had an scandalous relationship as she was a former prostitute who had opened a successful brothel, but she joined him in his travles and supported him in his works & ill health. The couple lived in England, where they became part of the literary scene and socialized with famous writers like Joseph Conrad & Henry James.
        
        Crane’s adventurous life was not without its hardships. His health was precarious from a young age, and he suffered from tuberculosis, which would ultimately lead to his early death at the age of 28 compounded by exhaustion & malnutrition. His financial situation was also unstable. Despite his literary success, he was often in debt due to his lavish lifestyle.
        
        The Red Badge of Courage
        
        Summary
        
        It tells the story of an ordinary young man, Henry Fleming, who signs up in the army because he is excited by the idea of war and being a hero. But shortly after enlisting, the reality of his decision sets in. He feels anxious and insecure, worrying about whether he will really be as brave as he'd like to be.
        
        When he finally engages in his first battle, he blindly fires into the battle haze/fog, never seeing his enemy. As the next enemy assault approaches, Henry's fears of death overwhelm him, and he runs away from the field. He continues his retreat for some time after he slows to rest. Henry is tormented over his lack of courage. Then he hears the sound of a renewed battle and, ironically, he returns to the battle from which he has fled, coming across many wounded men returning from the front to get medical assistance.
        
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        Henry Fleming
        /the youth
        
        (1895)
        
        Interesting facts
        
        Written with no war experience
        
        Innovative psychological realism &
        parody of romatic Heroism
        
        Symbolism: the badge
        
        Naturalism/determinism
        
        Impact on War literature & legacy
        
        A parody of the "romantic hero"
        
        Remarkably, Stephen Crane wrote this novel without any firsthand experience of war. He was only 24 y.o., and while he was familiar with Civil War veterans, he had never been in combat himself. Instead, Crane relied on historical accounts, his imagination & his vivid understanding of human psychology to craft a realistic story of battle. Many veterans who read the novel were stunned at its accuracy, assuming he had lived through similar experiences.
        
        The Red Badge of Courage was groundbreaking/innovative for its portrayal of war from the perspective of an individual soldier's internal struggle rather than grand heroic narratives, i.e., focusing on its psychological effects, rather than glorifying battle. This novel is intended to be a “psychological portrayal of fear” (a study of the mind of an inexperienced soldier trapped in the fury and turmoil of battle) and reviewers highly praised its psychological realism. It was the first non-romantized novel of the Civil War to attain widespread popularity, and it reversed the trend of the prevailing convention/tradition about war fiction and established a new, unprecedented one.
        
        The title was inspired by Crane’s desire to convey the irony & complexity of heroism. The "red badge" represents the protagonist’s internal struggle & personal growth, rather than traditional notions of valor and glory. The novel’s exploration of this psychological "badge" marked a shift from physical to mental heroism.
        
        Narturalism means that nature is indifferent to the suffering of man. The novel emphasizes the idea that individuals are shaped by their environment and circumstances, and they have limited control over their destinies. In this novel, the battlefield serves as a brutal and indifferent natural force that challenges Henry and his fellow soldiers. It does not romanticize or glorify war but instead presents a harsh, brutal depiction of the horrors and chaos of battle.
        
        Both the novel's innovative narrative style & its radical perspective influenced later writers, such as Ernest Hemingway, and it continues to influence how war stories are written. Today, it has been adapted into various films, plays & television productions as the story’s themes of courage, fear, and personal redemption continue to resonate with audiences
        
        The romantic figure of the hero is reversed /disproven in the story, which is the most striking feature of the novel. Our "hero" is not only a coward, but also a liar and a deserter. Crane seems to mock the conventions of war novels, and parodies the heroic romances so popular in his day. In this case, the reader can easily infer that Fleming is not the “heroic soldier”, he has not got a fixed character: he changes continuously, and he is not self-confident at all. Also, he has got mixed feelings, sometimes he feels fear, panic, and some other times he tries to reassure himself and give the impression of being brave and courageous.
  - - - Emily Dickinson (poems),
        
        Edgar Allan Poe (poems),
        
        Walt Whitman (poems),
        
        Ralph Waldo Emerson (non-fiction),
        
        Henry David Thoreau (non-fiction),